The promise of multimedia learning: using the same instructional design methods across different mediaIntroductionWhat is the promise of multimedia learning?What is a multimedia instructional message?How does multimedia learning work?Do methods work across media?Multimedia effect with text-and-illustrations and narration-and-animationCoherence effect with text-and-illustrations and narration-and-animationContiguity effect with text-and-illustrations and text-and-animationPersonalization effect with animation-and-narration and animation-and-textConclusionAcknowledgementsReferencesLearning and Instruction 13 (2003) 125–139www.elsevier.com/locate/learninstrucThe promise of multimedia learning: using thesame instructional design methods acrossdifferent mediaRichard E. Mayer∗Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USAAbstractMultimedia learning occurs when students build mental representations from words and picturesthat are presented to them (e.g., printed text and illustrations or narration and animation). Thepromise of multimedia learning is that students can learn more deeply from well-designed multi-media messages consisting of words and pictures than from more traditional modes of communi-cation involving words alone. This article explores a program of research aimed at determining(a) research-based principles for the design of multimedia explanations—which can be calledmethods, and (b) the extent to which methods are effective across different learning environ-ments—which can be called media. A review of research on the design of multimedia expla-nations conducted in our lab at Santa Barbara shows (a) a multimedia effect—in which studentslearn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone—in both book-based andcomputer-based environments, (b) a coherence effect—in which students learn more deeply whenextraneous material is excluded rather than included—in both book-based and computer-basedenvironments, (c) a spatial contiguity effect—in which students learn more deeply when printedwords are placed near rather than far from corresponding pictures—in both book-based and com-puter-based environments, and (d) a personalization effect—in which students learn more deeplywhen words are presented in conversational rather than formal style—both in computer-basedenvironments containing spoken words and those using printed words. Overall, our results providefour examples in which the same instructional design methods are effective across different media. 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Computer-based learning (CBL); Computer-based instruction (CBI); On-line training; Multi-media learning∗Tel.: +1-805-893-2472; fax: +1-805-893-4303.E-mail address: [email protected] (R.E. Mayer).0959-4752/03/$ - see front matter  2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/S0959-4752(02)00016-6126 R.E. Mayer / Learning and Instruction 13 (2003) 125–1391. IntroductionConsider the following learning scenario. A student sits at her desk and listens toa teacher giving a scientific explanation, such as how a bicycle tire pump works.For example, the teacher says: “When the handle is pulled up, the piston moves up,the inlet valve opens, the outlet valve closes, and air enters the cylinder. When thehandle is pushed down, the piston moves down, the inlet valve closes, the outletvalves opens, and air moves out through the hose”. Alternatively, a student sits ather desk, opens her book, and reads a passage, such as the explanation of how abicycle tire pump works. These are single-medium presentations that involve onlyone way of presenting information—words.What’s wrong with this verbal-only method of instruction? On the positive side,verbal modes of instruction have a long history in education and words are clearlythe dominant vehicle for delivering information in schools. In addition, the lectureand the textbook passage clearly present the key information describing how thepump works. On the negative side, however, verbal modes of instruction are some-times based on an inadequate conception of how students learn—which can be calledthe information delivery view. According to this view learning involves adding newinformation to memory, so teaching involves delivering the information to the learnersuch as through words. This view is inconsistent with current theories of how peoplelearn (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Bruer, 1993; Lambert & McCombs,1998; Mayer, Heiser, & Lonn, 2001), namely the constructivist view in which stu-dents attempt to make sense of the presented material.There is also empirical evidence that the verbal-only method does not alwayswork so well. Our research shows, on average, that students who listen to (or read)explanations that are presented solely as words are unable to remember most of thekey ideas and experience difficulty in using what was presented to solve new prob-lems (Mayer, 1997, 1999a, 1999b, 2001).In contrast, consider a learning scenario that goes beyond the purely verbal. Astudent sits at a computer screen, calls up an on-line encyclopedia, clicks on theentry for “pump”, and views a narrated animation that explains how a bicycle tirepump works. Selected frames from the presentation are shown in Fig. 1, along withcorresponding narration indicated in quotation marks. As an alternative, a studentmay read a book consisting of captioned illustrations; the book shows a series offrames of the pump depicting the steps in the operation of the pump with words thatdescribe each step printed within each frame. These are examples of multimedialearning because the student receives an instructional message that is presented intwo formats—as words (spoken or printed text) and pictures (animation orillustrations). Certainly, adding pictures to words does not always improve learning;thus, our goal is to determine the conditions under which adding pictures fostersdeep learning.127R.E. Mayer / Learning and Instruction 13 (2003) 125–139Fig. 1. Selected frames from a multimedia explanation of how a pump works.2. What is the promise of multimedia learning?The promise of multimedia learning is that, by combining pictures with words,we will be able to foster deeper learning in students. First, multimedia instructionmessages can be designed in ways that are consistent with how people learn, andthus can serve as aids to human learning (Mayer, 1997, 1999a,