tocA Review of Single-Phase Grid-Connected Inverters for PhotovoltaSoeren Baekhoej Kjaer, Member, IEEE, John K. Pedersen, Senior MeI. I NTRODUCTIONII. S PECIFICATIONS, D EMANDS, AND S TANDARDSA. Demands Defined by the GridTABLE€I S UMMARY OF THE M OST I NTERESTING S TANDARDS D EALING B. Demands Defined by the Photovoltaic Module(s)Fig.€1. Model and characteristics of a PV cell. (a) Electrical mC. Demands Defined by the OperatorIII. E VOLUTION OF PV I NVERTERSA. The Past Centralized InvertersFig.€2. Meteorological data. (a) Irradiation distribution for a Fig.€3. Historical overview of PV inverters. (a) Past centralizeFig.€4. Three types of PV inverters. Please note that the sign fB. The Present String Inverters and AC ModulesC. The Future Multi-String Inverters, AC Modules, and AC CellsIV. Classifications of Inverter TopologiesA. Number of Power Processing StagesFig.€5. Different locations for the power decoupling capacitor. Fig.€6. Examples of transformer-included inverter solutions. (a)Fig.€7. Transformerless high-input-voltage PV inverter with singB. Power DecouplingC. Transformers and Types of InterconnectionsFig.€8. Grid-connected inverter stages. (a), (b) Line-commutatedD. Types of Grid InterfacesV. AC M ODULESTABLE€II S UMMARY OF THE AC M ODULE I NVERTERS . F OR THE E FFIFig.€9. 100-W single-transistor flyback-type HF-link inverter [ Fig.€10. Flyback-type inverter with high-power decoupling [ 38 ]VI. S TRING AND M ULTI -S TRING I NVERTERSFig.€11. Modified Shimizu inverter [ 39 ] . Note that the polariFig.€12. Dual two-transistor flyback-type inverter [ 40 ] .Fig.€13. Flyback dc dc converter with unfolding dc ac inverter [Fig.€14. Flyback dc dc converter with PWM inverter [ 43 ], [ 44 Fig.€15. Series-resonant dc dc converter with bang-bang dc ac inFig.€16. Soladin 120 commercial inverter [ 14 ] .Fig.€17. Grid-connected system with half-bridge diode-clamped thFig.€18. Utility interactive photovoltaic inverter with GCC [ 48VII. D ISCUSSIONA. MethodsFig.€19. Topology of the power electronics of the multi-string iFig.€20. Topology of the power electronics of the three-string iTABLE€III E VALUATION OF THE S EVEN I NVERTER T OPOLOGIES FOR TTABLE€IV E VALUATION OF THE F OUR S TRING AND M ULTI -S TRING IB. AC Module InvertersC. String and Multi-String InvertersVIII. C ONCLUSIONJ. P. Benner and L. Kazmerski, Photovoltaics gaining greater vis(2003) Trends in Photovoltaic Applications. Survey Report of SelCharacteristics of the Utility Interface for Photovoltaic (PV) SLimits for Harmonic Current Emission (Equipment Input Current $<IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources With Ele2002 National Electrical Code, National Fire Protection AssociatB. Verhoeven et al. . (1998) Utility Aspects of Grid Connected PJ. H. R. Enslin and P. J. M. Heskes, Harmonic interaction betweeO. Willumsen, Connection of solar systems, Danish Electricity SuE. Bezzel, H. Lauritzen, and S. Wedel . (2004) The photo electroH. Wilk, D. Ruoss, and P. Toggweiler . 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Joubert, Optimized DC-D. C. Martins and R. Demonti, Grid connected PV system using twoA. Lohner, T. Meyer, and A. Nagel, A new panel-integratable inve(2001, Oct.) Soladin 120 . Mastervolt. [Online] . Available: wwwM. Meinhardt and P. Mutschler, Inverters without transformer in T. Shimizu, M. Hirakata, T. Kamezawa, and H. Watanabe, GeneratioT. Shimizu, O. Hashimoto, and G. Kimura, A novel high-performanc(2005, Jan.) Sunny Boy 5000TL Multi-String Operating InstructionC. Dorofte, Comparative analysis of four dc/dc converters for ph1292 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2005A Review of Single-Phase Grid-Connected Invertersfor Photovoltaic ModulesSoeren Baekhoej Kjaer, Member, IEEE, John K. Pedersen, Senior Member, IEEE, and Frede Blaabjerg, Fellow, IEEEAbstract—This review focuses on inverter technologies forconnecting photovoltaic (PV) modules to a single-phase grid. Theinverters are categorized into four classifications: 1) the numberof power processing stages in cascade; 2) the type of power de-coupling between the PV module(s) and the single-phase grid; 3)whether they utilizes a transformer (either line or high frequency)or not; and 4) the type of grid-connected power stage. Various in-verter topologies are presented, compared, and evaluated againstdemands, lifetime, component ratings, and cost. Finally, some ofthe topologies are pointed out as the best candidates for eithersingle PV module or
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