Categories and concepts- introductionLecture OutlineConceptsSlide 6Concepts: Traditional TheoryThe neural theoryClassical vs prototype model of categorizationPrototype theorySlide 11Slide 13Slide 14Slide 15Categories - who decides?Basic-level categoriesCategories & Prototypes: OverviewBasic-level -- CriteriaSlide 21Slide 22Slide 23Basic-Level CategoryOther Basic-level categoriesConcepts are not categoricalMotherRadial Structure of MotherMarriageConcepts and radial categoriesCategory StructurePrototypeNeural Evidence for category structureCategory Naming and DeficitsA PET Study on categories (Nature 1996)StudyThe experimentSlide 41Slide 42ConclusionsAction Words- an fMRI studySlide 45Traditional theoryDo action words activate the motor cortexSomatotopy in STS and MCThe ExperimentNormingAll ActionsCorrelation with BOLD SignalSlide 55Slide 56What are schemas?Basis of Image schemasImage schemasSlide 60Cross-linguistic VariationsEnglishJapaneseSlide 65DutchChineseSpatial schemasTrajector/Landmark SchemaTR/LM -- asymmetryBoundary SchemaBounded RegionTopological RelationsSlide 74Slide 75Slide 76Slide 77Slide 78OrientationSlide 80Language and Frames of ReferenceIntrinsic frame of referenceRelative frame of referenceAbsolute frame of referenceTR/LM and Verticality SchemasProximal/Distal SchemaSimple vs. Complex SchemasContainer SchemaSlide 89Container Schema ElaboratedSource-Path-GoalSPG -- simple exampleSPG and ContainerPATH landmarksPart-Whole SchemaRepresenting image schemasLanguage and Spatial SchemasSimulation-based language understandingThe INTO constructionSimulation specificationSlide 102Slide 104An experiment on Image SchemasExample verbsSlide 107Aspect anglesSlide 109Slide 110Slide 111Summary of ResultLanguage and ThoughtCategories and concepts- introductionCS182/Ling109/CogSci110Spring 2006Lecture Outline•Categories–Basic Level–Prototype Effects–Neural Evidence for Category Structure•Aspects of a Neural Theory of concepts•Image Schemas–Description and types–Behavioral Experiment on Image Schemas•Event Structure and Motor SchemasConcepts•What Concepts Are: Basic Constraints–Concepts are the elements of reason, and –constitute the meanings of words and linguistic expressions.Concepts Are:•Universal: they characterize all particular instances; e.g., the concept of grasping is the same no matter who the agent is or what the patient is or how it is done.•Stable. •Internally structured. •Compositional.•Inferential. They interact to give rise to inferences.•Relational. They may be related by hyponymy, antonymy, etc.•Meaningful. •Not tied to the specific word forms used to express them.Concepts: Traditional Theory•The Traditional Theory–Reason and language are what distinguish human beings from other animals.–Concepts therefore use only human-specific brain mechanisms.–Reason is separate from perception and action, and does not make direct use of the sensory-motor system.–Concepts must be “disembodied” in this sense.The neural theoryHuman concepts are embodied. Many concepts make direct use of sensory-motor, emotional, and social cognition capacities of our body-brain system.•Many of these capacities are also present in non-human primates.Classical vs prototype model of categorization•Classical model–Category membership determined on basis of essential features–Categories have clear boundaries–Category features are binary•Prototype model–Features that frequently co-occur lead to establishment of category–Categories are formed through experience with exemplarsPrototype theory1. Certain members of a category are prototypical – or instantiate the prototype2. Categories form around prototypes; new members added on basis of resemblance to prototype3. No requirement that a property or set of properties be shared by all members4. Features/attributes generally gradable5. Category membership a matter of degree6. Categories do not have clear boundariesPrototype theory1. Certain members of a category are prototypical – or instantiate the prototypeCategory members are not all equala robin is a prototypical bird, but we may not want to say it is the prototype, rather it instantiates (manifests) the prototype or ideal -- it exhibits many of the features that the abstract prototype does“It is conceivable that the prototype for dog will be unspecified for sex; yet each exemplar is necessarily either male or female.” (Taylor)3. No requirement that a property or set of properties be shared by all members -- no criterial attributes–Category where a set of necessary and sufficient attributes can be found is the exception rather than the rule–Labov household dishes experiment•Necessary that cups be containers, not sufficient since many things are containers•Cups can’t be defined by material used, shape, presence of handles or functionPrototype theoryPrototype theory–Wittgenstein’s examination of game•Generally necessary that all games be amusing, not sufficient since many things are amusing•Board games, ball games, card games, etc. have different objectives, call on different skills and motor routines- categories normally not definable in terms of necessary and sufficient features•What about mathematical categories like odd or even numbers? Aren’t these sharply defined?–(Armstrong et al.) Subjects asked to assign numbers a degree of membership to the categories odd number or even number 3 had a high degree of membership, 447 and 91 had a lower degree (all were rated at least ‘moderately good’)Prototype theoryCategories - who decides?•Embodied theory of meaning- categories are not pre-formed and waiting for us to behold them. Our need for categories drives what categories we will have •Basic level categories - not all categories have equal status. The basic level category has demonstrably greater psychological significance.Basic-level categorieschair desk chair easy chair rocking chairfurniture lamp desk lamp floor lamp table dining room table coffee table Superordinate Basic SubordinateCategories & Prototypes: Overview•Three ways of examining the categories we form:–relations between categories (e.g. basic-level category)–internal category structure (e.g. radial category)–instances of category members (e.g. prototypes)FurnitureSofa DeskleathersofafabricsofaL-shapeddeskReceptiondiskBasic-Level CategorySuperordinateSubordinateBasic-level --