The Rise of BroadcastingGeoff NunbergIs103History of Information11/7/07AgendaThe (re-)invention of radioThe political backgroundThe rise of radio broadcastThe advent of televisionTelevision and political lifeThe (re-(re-))invention of radio23Establishing Remote PresenceRepresenting presence symbolically or iconicallyWriting, print, telegraphy, postal service etc.; also painting, engraving, etc.Extending presence: Photography, telephony, cinema, radio, television4"The Medium is the Message"Television has become, so to speak, the background radiation of the social and intellectual universe, the all-but-imperceptible residue of the electronic big bang of a century past, so familiar and so thoroughly integrated with American culture that we no longer hear its faint hissing in the background or see the flickering grey light. This, in turn, means that its epistemology goes largely unnoticed. And the peek-a-boo world it has constructed around us no longer seems even strange... Our culture's adjustment to the epistemology of television is by now almost complete; we have so thoroughly accepted its definitions of truth, knowledge and reality that irrelevance seems to us to be filled with import, and incoherence seems eminently sane. Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death, 19865Factors Determining the Form of BroadcastingTechnological DevelopmentsPolitical & Regulatory DecisionsCommercial InterestsCultural Predispositions6Technological Development of Radio1861-1865: James Maxwell describes propagation of electromagnetic waves1886: Heinrich Hertz demonstrates transmission & reception of radio waves at 20 m. distance"It's of no use whatsoever[...] this is just an experiment that proves Maestro Maxwell was right - we just have these mysterious electromagnetic waves that we cannot see with the naked eye. But they are there."1895: Nikola Tesla transmits radio waves from NY to West Point (50 mi.)1895: Guglielmo Marconi transmits radio signals over a mile using coherer, basis of early radiotelegraphyHeinrich Hertz7Technological Development of Radio1896: Marconi receives British patent for transmission & reception of "Herzian waves" (US patent 1896)1900: Marconi patents tuning dial1901: Marconi claims to have transmitted radio signals from Poldhu (Cornwall) to Newfoundland1900-1910: New technologies make possible continuous wave transmission of voiceHeinrich HertzMarconiTesla8Early Point-to-Point Applications of Radio1905: Japanese use of radio helps in victory over Russian fleet at battle of Tsushima 1912: Titanic uses radio to signal for help, but one nearby ship misses signal; Congress passes Radio Act to allocate band frequencies, require licensed radio operators on ships.1914-1918 British domination of wireless & cable technology gives it strategic advantages in WWI1917: Interception of Zimmerman telegram helps bring US into war9Models of Control of BroadcastingState-owned, politically controlled (many European nations)State establishes quasi-independent public corporation supported by tax on receivers (e.g. UK)State licenses frequencies to commercial broadcasters, exerts some control over content; revenues derived from advertising (US)10Models of Broadcasting as MediumBroadcasting as common carrier (I.e., like phone service) with obligation to provide general accessBroadcasting as extension of press, exempt from controlBroadcasting as entertainment (like movies) subject to censorship11The Emergence of Broadcast1906: Reginald Fessenden makes first AM transmission, experiments in voice & music broadcast. 1920: Marconi Company sponsors first regular "public" broadcasts in UK, but Post Office bans further use until 1922Nov. 2, 1920: KDKA Pittsburgh broadcasts results of presidential election; first station to schedule regular broadcasts. 1921: KDKA makes first broadcast of Major League baseball games12The Emergence of Broadcast1921: AT&T anounces plan to create a national broadcasting network1921: Telephone circuits carry Harding's Armistice Day Address from Arlington Cemetary to NY and San Francisco13The Emergence of Broadcast1922: BBC begins broadcasting from the roof of Selfridges in London1926: AT&T sells network to Radio Corporation of America1920-1925: "Broadcasting boom" leads to rapid increase in number of stations & receivers. Household penetration is 24% in 1927; 46% in 1930; 65% in 19341934: First FM licenses granted, but technology doesn't catch on for 25 years14Resolving the Control of Radio1927: Radio Act establishes Federal Radio CommissionAuthorizes FRC to grant broadcasting licenses & assign frequencies. Gives FRC no power of censorship, apart from banning "obsecene or indecent" language, but permits FRC to consider past content in granting licenses. Requires stations to give equal time to political candidates.Opens radio to wide use of advertising; advertisers assume increasing responsibility for creating contentFRC favors "clear channel" allocations (1 station per frequency), which gives most bandwidth to networks & commercial stations, on grounds of "public convenience"15Resolving the Control of Radio1934: Communications Act replaces FRC with Fed. Communications Commission. Gives FRC power to (somewhat) limit network control of affiliatesRejects efforts to establish "hybrid" systems like those in Canada & Australia, which made provision for state-controlled public interest broadcasting alongside of commercial radio16The Development of Programming1925-1940 Emergence of radio-specific genres1928: "Amos n' Andy originates at WMAQ Chicagohttp://Amos n' Andy Freeman Gosden and Charles Correl17The Development of Programming1925: Grand Ole Opry first broadcast on WSM, Nashville1927: H. V. Kaltenborn, broadcasting news, first heard on CBS 1930: WGN Chicago broadcasts "Painted Dreams," first radio soap opera about Irish widow & daughter1933: With "Biltmore agreement," networks agree to limit radio news.1932: Walter Winchell begins NBC (later ABC) broadcast on "Jergens Journal"1938: Orson Wells' "War of the Worlds" broadcast creates (some) panic and confusion.18The Development of Programming1925: Grand Ole Opry first broadcast on WSM, Nashville1927: H. V. Kaltenborn, broadcasting news, first heard on CBS 1930: WGN Chicago broadcasts "Painted Dreams," first radio soap opera about Irish widow & daughter1933: With "Biltmore agreement," networks agree to limit radio news.1932: Walter Winchell begins NBC (later ABC) broadcast on "Jergens Journal"1938: Orson Wells' "War of the Worlds"