PHIL 1102 1st Edition Lecture 4Outline of last lecture l. Guidelines for informative definition ll. Cognitive and emotive meaning lll. Factual and verbal disputes lV. The basics of diagramming arguments V. Incomplete arguments Vl. Rhetorical language Vll. Necessary and sufficient conditionsOutline of current lecture Vlll. Informal Fallicies lX. Fallacies of Unwarranted AssumptionCurrent Lecture Vlll. Informal Fallacies A. Formal fallacy: a logical error in a deductive argument that occurs in the form or structure of an argument B. Informal fallacy: a mistake in reasoning that occurs in ordinary language, includingmistakes due to relevance, unwarranted assumption, and ambiguity or diversion IX. Fallacies of Relevance A. Fallacies that occur whenever irrelevant premises are offered in support of a conclusion B. Irrelevant premises often rely on psychological or emotional appeal for their persuasive force. C. Argument against the person - When a claim is rejected based on alleged character flaws, negative stereotype, or life circumstances of the person making the claim. Senator Hilltop thinks my administration’s tax proposals are bad for the country. His political party lost the last election. Members of the losing party are always jealous of the winning party. The premises attack Senator Hilltop’s party affiliation and negatively stereotype the senator and his party. D. Poisoning the well - A version of the ad hominem fallacy. Rather than engaging with the argument that someone puts forward, the opponent points out false or outrageous things that this person has said on previous occasions, often before the opponents get the chance to present their arguments. While it might be advisable to take what a person says with caution upon discovering that thisperson has lied or unwittingly provided false claims many times before. This fact does not provide sufficient reason to believe the opposite of what the person says, or to disregard completely his or her argument just because of this, without inspecting the argument to see whether it might be valid. Mr. C. Rye-Wolf says that he has watertight evidence that I, the Mayor, have paid for my recent private holiday out of funds that were dedicated to rebuilding a hospital. The money has indeed disappeared and I presently don’t know where it went, but Mr. Rye-Wolf has been known to lie in the past. So, I move to disregard any evidence he my present. E. Tu quoque- A type of ad hominem fallacy distinguished by the attempt of one person to avoid the issue at hand by claiming the other person is a hypocrite. You have been lecturing me about not joining a gang. But Dad, you were a gang member, and you never went to jail. So, I’ll make my own decision about joining a gang. The tu quoque attack is aimed at the dad, not at dad’s arguments. The premises are used to imply that “Dad, you are a hypocrite,”Which is then used to reject Dad’s arguments: I can disregard your lecture. F. Appeal to the people - The avoidance of objective evidence in favor of emotional response, defeating a rational investigation of truth. Public school teachers are demanding a pay raise and are threatening to strike.A prolonged strike will jeopardize our children’s future and result in an unbalanced budget, lading to raised taxes. So are you for or against a pay raisefor public school teachers?Terms like demanding, threating, prolonged, strike, and jeopardize evoke a sense of dire consequences and provoke anger in taxpayers and voters. G. Appeal to pity - An emotional plea that relies solely on sense of pity for support.Your honor, before you sentence my client for the murder of his parents, I ask you to consider his situation. He is an orphan. Perhaps you can give him the lightest punishment possible. The premises simply ask the judge to pity the defendant because he is a self-caused orphan. H. Appeal to Force- A threat of harmful consequences (physical and otherwise) Used to force acceptance of a course of action that would otherwise be unacceptable. I. Appeal to ignorance claiming either:1. A statement must be true because it has not been proven to be false 2. A statement must be false because it has not been proven to be true. There is no life anywhere else in the universe. We have never received signals from any part of space. The conclusion is based on the lack of signals from outer space, while our failure to detect signals may signify our ignorance of better methods for detecting life.J. Missing the point - When the premises that seem to lead logically to one conclusion are used instead to try to support another conclusion. Something is seriously wrong with high school education today. SAT scores are extremely low, and some high school graduates can barley read and write. The conclusion is obvious: we should close all high schools.The premises obviously support a conclusion, but a different conclusion is drawn, which superficially seems related, but does not follow from the premises. K. Appeal to Unqualified Authority - Relies on the opinions of people who no expertise, training, or knowledge relevant to the issue at hand. I’m Nick Panning, quarterback of the LA seals. I’ve been eating oaties for breakfast since I was a kid. Oaties provide nutrition and vitamins and helps build strong bones. Oaties tastes great. You should get some for your kids today. Merely being famous does not qualify someone to pronounce the merit of a product. L. Appeal to Nausea- An ad nauseam argument claims that, purely for the reason that some argument has been presented often before, it should be disregarded (one is sick of hearing it). Al Gore is going on and on about global warming. I’m sure you all agree that we are tired of hearing his arguments. Let us just forget about the whole thing and get on with our lives. That these arguments have been heard before does not mean that they are bad arguments that can be ignored. - Note: when something has been shown to be false in the past, a similar sounding argument is, of course, not a fallacy. Senator O’Deer has called for tougher laws many times before. But it has been shown conclusively in the past that his figures-these very figures-don’t add up and his claims are not supported by the facts. So let’s not discuss them again (NOT A FALLACY!!!!!!!!!)M. Genetic Fallacy- The origin of something or someone is cited in order to discredit it, but this origin or the history of the thing, word or