Introduction to LearningA Definition of LearningThree Limits on the DefinitionRoots of Behavior TheoryCriticisms of FunctionalismBehaviorismThorndike’s LawsThorndike’s Laws (Cont.)Pavlov’s StudiesPavlov’s Conditioned ReflexTerminology of ConditioningMore TerminologySlide 13Conditioning ProcessesAcquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous RecoveryLittle AlbertWatson & RaynorEthics of Learning ResearchModification of Instinctive BehaviorInstinctive SystemsEnergy ModelReleasing SignsHierarchical SystemConflicting MotivesConditioning Affects BehaviorCriticisms of the Energy ModelAcquired Changes in ResponseExperimental EvidenceConditions Producing ChangeConditions (Cont.)Opponent-Process TheoryThe Addiction ProcessWhat Sustains Addiction?Introduction to LearningChapter 1A Definition of LearningLearning is:An experiential processResulting in a relatively permanent changeNot explained by temporary states, maturation, or innate response tendencies.Three Limits on the DefinitionThe change that occurs during learning is a potential for behavior that depends on other conditions.Learning is not always a permanent change.What can be learned can be unlearned.Changes also occur for other reasons – maturation, motivation.Roots of Behavior TheoryFunctionalism – behavior promotes survival, study behavior to understand its adaptive function.Dewey – lower animals have reflexes, humans have a flexible mindJames – people have instinctsBrucke – internal biochemical forces motivate behavior in all species.Criticisms of FunctionalismThe variety of behavior across cultures is inconsistent with universal human instincts.Infants seem to have few innate instincts.Labeling everything an instinct doesn’t aid understanding much.Bernard cataloged 2000+ instinctsBehaviorismA search for the laws governing learning.Emphasis on experience.Avoidance of mentalistic concepts.Associations are formed based on:Resemblance (similarity)Contiguity in time or placeCause and effectBritish empiricists: Locke, HumeThorndike’s LawsAlso called S-R learning.Law of effect – A chance act becomes a learned behavior when a connection is formed between a stimulus (S) and a response (R) that is rewarded.Law of exercise – the S-R connection is strengthened by use and weakened with disuse.Thorndike’s Laws (Cont.)Law of readiness – motivation is needed to develop an association or display changed behavior.Associative shifting – a learned behavior (response) can be shifted from one stimulus to another.Once a behavior is learned, the stimulus is gradually changed.Fish + “stand up”, then “stand up” alone.Pavlov’s StudiesPavlov’s Conditioned ReflexConditioning -- a stimulus that initially produces no response can acquire the ability to produce one.Learning occurs through pairing in time and place of one stimulus with another stimulus that produces a response.This is a kind of associative shifting, but the response is involuntary.Terminology of ConditioningUnconditioned stimulus (US or UCS)Produces a reflexive response without learning.Unconditioned response (UR or UCR)The response that occurs, typically a reflex, involuntary and automatic.More TerminologyNeutral stimulusA stimulus not capable of producing an unconditioned response.Conditioned stimulus (CS)A previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to evoke a response.Conditioned response (CR)The learned response, similar to the UCR, an involuntary reflex.Prior to conditioningNeutral stimulus(tone)(Orientation to soundbut no response)UCS(food powder in mouth)UCR(salivation)ConditioningNeutral stimulusCS (tone)UCS(food powder)+CR(salivation)After conditioningCS(tone)CR(salivation)Conditioning ProcessesStimulus generalization – stimuli like the CS become able to evoke the conditioned response.Extinction – if the UCS and CS are not paired, the CS loses its ability to produce a conditioned response.Spontaneous recovery – an extinguished CS briefly returns but quickly goes away again.Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous RecoveryLittle AlbertWatson & RaynorHuman fears can be acquired through Pavlovian conditioning.Rat paired with loud noiseStimulus generalized to other white objects (white rabbit, white fur coat)Mary Cover Jones developed counterconditioning -- a technique for eliminating conditioned fears.Acquisition of fear-inhibiting responseEthics of Learning ResearchAnimals and humans are now protected by oversight and ethical guidelines.Pain or injury to animals must be weighed against and justified by the knowledge to be gained.Electric shock typically is uncomfortable and upsetting but not physically harmful.Modification of Instinctive BehaviorChapter 2Instinctive SystemsLorenz & Tinbergen – evolution occurs when a species incorporates environmental knowledge into its genetic structure.Greylag goose and egg-rolling.Learning can sometimes modify instinctive behavior – even though the fixed action patterns are innate.Energy ModelAction-specific energy builds up but is blocked (inhibited).The energy motivates appetitive (approach) behavior.Presence of a sign stimulus releases the energy by stimulating an innate releasing mechanism.The behavior occurs as a fixed action pattern (or chain of actions).Releasing SignsReleasing signs can be complex:Grayling butterfly signs include darkness of female, distance from male, and pattern of movement.Intensity of the sign influences the behavior but so does the amount of accumulated energy (time since the last response).Hierarchical SystemSpecific behaviors are controlled by a central instinctive system.Energy can accumulate at each level in the system.Hormones generate energy.Release of energy at higher levels flows to lower levels.The sign stimulus determines which behavior will occur.Conflicting MotivesIf two incompatible signs appear at the same time, energy flows to a third instinct system.Stickleback fish begins nest-building when caught in a fight-flight conflict.This third behavior is called displacement.Conditioning Affects BehaviorConditioning experiences can change sensitivity to releasing signs.Only the consummatory response (eating, mating) at the end of a chain cannot be changed.Conditioning fine tunes the response to the environment and enhances
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