Hard ProblemsCryptographyPublic Key Cryptosystem (RSA)Slide 4RSA Encryption And DecryptionBreaking RSASecurity Of RSAElliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)Data Encryption StandardSlide 12Other ProblemsSubset Sum ProblemTraveling Salesperson Problem (TSP)Applications Of TSPSlide 20Slide 22n-Queens ProblemSlide 24Slide 25Difficult ProblemsSubset ProblemsPermutation ProblemsSolution SpaceSlide 30Hard Problems•Some problems are hard to solve.No polynomial time algorithm is known.E.g., NP-hard problems such as machine scheduling, bin packing, 0/1 knapsack.•Is this necessarily bad?•Data encryption relies on difficult to solve problems.Cryptographydecryption algorithmencryption algorithmmessagemessageTransmission Channelencryption keydecryption keyPublic Key Cryptosystem (RSA)•A public encryption method that relies on a public encryption algorithm, a public decryption algorithm, and a public encryption key.•Using the public key and encryption algorithm, everyone can encrypt a message.•The decryption key is known only to authorized parties.•Asymmetric method.–Encryption and decryption keys are different; one is not easily computed from the other.Public Key Cryptosystem (RSA)•p and q are two prime numbers.•n = pq•m = (p-1)(q-1)•a is such that 1 < a < m and gcd(m,a) = 1.•b is such that (ab) mod m = 1.•a is computed by generating random positive integers and testing gcd(m,a) = 1 using the extended Euclid’s gcd algorithm.•The extended Euclid’s gcd algorithm also computes b when gcd(m,a) = 1.RSA Encryption And Decryption•Message M < n.•Encryption key = (a,n).•Decryption key = (b,n).•Encrypt => E = Ma mod n.•Decrypt => M = Eb mod n.Breaking RSA•Factor n and determine p and q, n = pq.•Now determine m = (p-1)(q-1).•Now use Euclid’s extended gcd algorithm to compute gcd(m,a). b is obtained as a byproduct.•The decryption key (b,n) has been determined!Security Of RSA•Relies on the fact that prime factorization is computationally very hard.•Let q be the number of bits in the binary representation of n.•No algorithm, polynomial in q, is known to find the prime factors of n.•Try to find the factors of a 100 bit number.Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)•Asymmetric Encryption Method–Encryption and decryption keys are different; one is not easily computed from the other.•Relies on difficulty of computing the discrete logarithm problem for the group of an elliptic curve over some finite field.–Galois field of size a power of 2.–Integers modulo a prime.•1024-bit RSA ~ 200-bit ECC (cracking difficulty).•Faster to compute than RSA?Data Encryption Standard•Used for password encryption.•Encryption and decryption keys are the same, and are secret.•Relies on the computational difficulty of the satisfiability problem.•The satisfiability problem is NP-hard.Satisfiability Problem•F = (x1+ x2 + x3)( x4+ x7 + x8)(x2+ x5)•F is true when x1, x2, and x4 (for e.g.) are true.Other Problems•PartitionPartition n positive integers s1, s2, s3, …, sn into two groups A and B such that the sum of the numbers in each group is the same.[9, 4, 6, 3, 5, 1,8]A = [9, 4, 5] and B = [6, 3, 1, 8]•NP-hard.Subset Sum Problem•Does any subset of n positive integers s1, s2, s3, …, sn have a sum exactly equal to c?•[9, 4, 6, 3, 5, 1,8] and c = 18•A = [9, 4, 5]•NP-hard.Traveling Salesperson Problem (TSP)•Let G be a weighted directed graph.•A tour in G is a cycle that includes every vertex of the graph.•TSP => Find a tour of shortest length.•Problem is NP-hard.Applications Of TSPHome cityVisit cityApplications Of TSPRobot StationApplications Of TSP•Manufacturing. •A robot arm is used to drill n holes in a metal sheet.n+1 vertex TSP.Robot Stationn-Queens ProblemA queen that is placed on an n x n chessboard, may attack any piece placed in the same column, row, or diagonal. 8x8 Chessboardn-Queens ProblemCan n queens be placed on an n x n chessboard so that no queen may attack another queen?4x4n-Queens Problem8x8Difficult Problems•Many require you to find either a subset or permutation that satisfies some constraints and (possibly also) optimizes some objective function.•May be solved by organizing the solution space into a tree and systematically searching this tree for the answer.Subset Problems•Solution requires you to find a subset of n elements.•The subset must satisfy some constraints and possibly optimize some objective function.•Examples.Partition.Subset sum.0/1 Knapsack.Satisfiability (find subset of variables to be set to true so that formula evaluates to true).Scheduling 2 machines.Packing 2 bins.Permutation Problems•Solution requires you to find a permutation of n elements.•The permutation must satisfy some constraints and possibly optimize some objective function.•Examples.TSP.n-queens.Each queen must be placed in a different row and different column.Let queen i be the queen that is going to be placed in row i.Let ci be the column in which queen i is placed. c1, c2, c3, …, cn is a permutation of [1,2,3, …, n] such that no two queens attack.Solution Space•Set that includes at least one solution to the problem.•Subset problem.n = 2, {00, 01, 10, 11}n = 3, {000, 001, 010, 100, 011, 101, 110, 111}•Solution space for subset problem has 2n members.•Nonsystematic search of the space for the answer takes O(p2n) time, where p is the time needed to evaluate each member of the solution space.Solution Space•Permutation problem.n = 2, {12, 21}n = 3, {123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321}•Solution space for a permutation problem has n! members.•Nonsystematic search of the space for the answer takes O(pn!) time, where p is the time needed to evaluate a member of the solution