1http://www.ukclimbing.com/news/item.php?id=49981 Physiology• Define: The study of how living organisms function• Structure & function are important to understand function• Why study: Curiosity. Better understand how humans function under normal conditions. Thus, modifications of pathological states back to a ‗normal‘ state might be possible.• Many of the physiological process are described by chemical and physical properties• It is important to integrate these concepts with biology.2• The physiology of an animal is well suited to the environment in which it has evolved.This is explained by the process of ADAPTATION-gradual change over many generations.• Acclimatization is a change of an individual over its lifetime of biochemical or anatomical alterations• Acclimation is like acclimatization but induced by experimentation.• Homeostasis- The tendency of an organism to regulate and maintain relative internal stability.• Claude Bernard coined this term 1800‘s3This mostly works by a feed back control.Such as by a negative feedback.Examples - Temp, pH, salinity within the body4Chapter 2• Read over it for your own benefit• Know August Krogh principle.- that there is an animal optimally suited to yield an answer of a physiological problem to be addressedChapter 3• Understanding of molecules and their function for physiological processes.• Water- it is polar can be used to interact with other ions. It lets Na+Cl- dissolve in body fluids. This is needed for rapid transport of ions.• Acid: any substance that can donate a proton.• Base: any substance that combines with a proton.56FATS:1. Lipids2. Phospholipids for membranes3. Waxes- water proof the surface of insectsBiological MoleculesLIPIDSFats - triglycerideSaturated- each carbon has a single bond and is staurated with ‘H’Unsaturated- some carbons have a doublebond and thus are not saturated with ‘H’.2. Phospholipids for membranes7Unsat Sat1. Melting Pt.: Decreased increased2. Metab: - easily converted to sterols (ie, Cholesterol). Need for cholesterol for steroid based hormone production.Fats are good as a energy store. 1. Little water needed. 2. Stored in adipose tissue. 3. High “H & C” with little “O” so one gets a good energy yield. (1 gram of fat=2 grams of carbohydrates)FATS:1. Lipids2. Phospholipids for membranes3. Waxes- water proof the surface of insects8CarbohydratesI. MonosaccharidesII. DisaccharidesI. Monosaccharides-Six carbon-- hexoses-five carbon-- pentoses9The disaccharides are units of monosaccharidesA. Polymers – Plants—starch-- Animals– glycogenLittle water needed for storage. So good energy for plants and animals.B. CelluloseC. Chitin (exoskeleton in insects/crustaceans)10Proteins• A lot in cells. ½ of the dry mass.• Various structures.-Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary11SecondaryAlpha helixSecondaryBeta- sheet12Secondary types- alpha helix: alpha-Keratins for hair and wool- Beta sheets: (Harder) beta- Keratins for reptile scales and turtle shellsTertiaryQuaternary- a couple of subunits coming together like Heme units.ie., Hemoglobin13Molecular chaperones• Fold other proteins. Maintain their structure.• To protect proteins from degradation and preserve the overall integrity of intracellular protein pool.• Example HSP or stress proteins.DNA & RNA• DNA isolated in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher. White blood cells and fish sperm.• DNA- genes• RNA translating the coded DNA message.• DNA with mRNA--- Transcription• mRNA to protein --- TranslationA-T and C-G in DNABut A-U in RNA14Energy in Living cells• Chemical Rxs taking place (types of tissues)• Where within the cells? (organelles)Animals are like chemical machines.Different forms of Energy- ie., thermal and mechanical.• A measure of a systems energy that it can provide.ΔG = ΔH-TΔS Is Gibbs free EnergyΔH is heat; ΔS is EntropyIf ΔG is neg then the Rx is spontaneous. Also hold for biochemical Rxs.151617• Rx A+B C+DReactants to ProductsSubstrate goes to a Product S Pk18• Then the Michaelis-Menton equation for a single enzyme Vo of initial rate varies but can be used for determining other factors.Key is when Vo = ½ VmaxThen; Vmax = Vmax [S] will be Km=[S]2 Km + [S]So Km can be determined by a plot. In this kind of plot many values are needed for the curve. A linear plot is easier and more accurate.191 = Km + 1 Vo Vm[S] Vmax2021Metabolic Rx in the body must be regulated.Not all or none Rxs for process like ATP (energy)Many Rx regulated by enzymes. They are proteins; they are made and broken down.These are amino acids so Temp, pH, and salts will have an effect on their function.Also the cell does not want to much excess protein around so make Enzymes as needed.Ex: The neurotransmitter/hormone: Norepinephrine can inhibit tyrosine hydroxylase which is an enzyme that makes Norepi.22Energy within the cells used to drive the tissue- to organ- to system.2 ATP36 ATP (?)Total 38 ATP (?)23C6H12O6+ 6 O2= 6 CO2+ 6 H2O with O2metabolism Inner membrane ETC and most ATP is producedFigure 5.524NAD+NADHCO2+ H+25TCA and ETC:Molecule ATP worth Total4 NADH 3 121 FADH22 2(Above, I wrote 2 FADH2in class by mistake)1GTP 1 115X2 TCA cycles =30 ATPGlycolysis:Gly Net ATP 232 Total2 NADH in Gly (3 ATP/each) 638 TotalBut use 2 ATP for the transport into Mit -2 (1 ATP for each NADH)36 ATP Grand totalEndosymbiotic theoryLynn Margulis2627Anaerobic- Bacteria, some yeasts, some invertebrates can live without O2. Ex. Clostridium botulinum can not grow in O2.Aerobic- require a supply of O2. Some tissues like muscle can function anaerobically and build up an ―O2debt‖ but pay back occurs.With O2the cells are 20 times more efficient to produce ATP.28Homework problemsCompetitive1. Binds at active site2. Increase [S] removes inhibition3. Increase [I] more block till saturated(alter rate and Increase Km, without a change on Vmax)4. Slope changesNon- Competitive1. Dose not binds at active site2. Increase [S] no effect3. Increase [I] more block till saturated(no change on Km, but decrease Vmax)4. Slope