AbstractTable of ContentsINTRODUCTIONBerners-Lee and the Ethos of Free LinkingHyperlinks and Other Practical Internet LinksLAWS THAT MAY AFFECT LINKING USAGETrademark InfringementTrademark DilutionPassing OffFalse AdvertisingCopyright InfringementDatabase ProtectionMisappropriationLINKING CLAIMS, REAL AND POTENTIALCopyright Infringement Through Direct Linking—FroDeep LinkingInlining and Framing—Combined Content Claims fromMetatags—the Deceptive or Descriptive Use of IndeKeyword-Based Customized AdvertisingTarnishment and Disparagement ClaimsPossible Negligence ClaimsDerivative Liability Based on Links (Direct and Indirect) to Prohibited or Illegal ContentDEFENSES AND DEFENSIVE STRATEGIES FOR HYPERLINK CLAIMSStandard Defenses to ClaimsRight to Link DefenseNormal Competitive ConductDisclaimers, Linking Restrictions, and other One-Party ActionsPermission AgreementsPRINCIPLES FOR LINK LAW DISPUTESCONCLUSIONLINK LAW REVISITED: INTERNET LINKING LAW AT FIVE YEARS By Mark Sableman† ABSTRACT Internet links may create legal liability. Despite the Internet’s initial “free linking” ethos, links can be unlawful when they are designed to confuse viewers, to evade court orders or clear statutory prohibition, or to promote illegal conduct by others. But most linking is lawful, even where the linked site claims the right to authorize and control links. Linking law, which began with the Shetland Times headline-linking case in Scotland in late 1996, now includes several United States precedents as well as a developing worldwide body of opinions on various subjects. As new linking claims are asserted, and as new linking techniques are created, courts are being challenged to carefully analyze the practical, technological and business circumstances surrounding the claims, and to fashion sound legal principles. This Article comprehensively reviews linking claims and potential claims, including cases of direct linking, deep linking, metatags, keyword purchases, inlining, framing, and de-rivative liability. It analyzes the legal theories asserted, suggests defenses and strategies for combating linking claims, and concludes with recom-mendations for link-law policies. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. 2 A. Berners-Lee and the Ethos of Free Linking........................................................ 3 B. Hyperlinks and Other Practical Internet Links ................................................... 4 II. LAWS THAT MAY AFFECT LINKING USAGE ........................................... 7 A. Trademark Infringement..................................................................................... 7 B. Trademark Dilution ............................................................................................ 9 C. Passing Off ....................................................................................................... 10 D. False Advertising.............................................................................................. 10 E. Copyright Infringement .................................................................................... 11 F. Database Protection .......................................................................................... 12 G. Misappropriation .............................................................................................. 12 III. LINKING CLAIMS, REAL AND POTENTIAL ............................................ 13 © 2001 Mark Sableman. † Partner, Thompson Coburn LLP, St. Louis, Missouri.A. Copyright Infringement Through Direct Linking—From Shetland Times Headlines to Ditto.com Thumbnails................................................................ 13 B. Deep Linking.................................................................................................... 20 C. Inlining and Framing—Combined Content Claims from Dilbert to Total News................................................................................................................ 26 D. Metatags—The Deceptive or Descriptive Use of Indexing Keywords ............ 30 E. Keyword-Based Customized Advertising ........................................................ 38 F. Tarnishment and Disparagement Claims.......................................................... 43 G. Possible Negligence Claims ............................................................................. 46 H. Derivative Liability Based on Links (Direct and Indirect) to Prohibited or Illegal Content................................................................................................. 46 IV. DEFENSES AND DEFENSIVE STRATEGIES FOR HYPERLINK CLAIMS.................................................................................................................. 58 A. Standard Defenses to Claims............................................................................ 58 B. Right to Link Defense ...................................................................................... 60 C. Normal Competitive Conduct........................................................................... 62 D. Disclaimers, Linking Restrictions, and Other One-Party Actions.................... 63 E. Permission Agreements .................................................................................... 65 V. PRINCIPLES FOR LINK LAW DISPUTES................................................... 67 VI. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 74 I. INTRODUCTION Can Internet links ever be unlawful? After five years of cases world-wide, an answer has emerged: yes, in some relatively rare situations, one web publisher’s attempt to link to other Internet sites or content may cre-ate liability. Despite the “free linking” ethos of the founders and first users of the World Wide Web, links can be unlawful, usually when they are de-signed to confuse viewers, to evade court orders or clear statutory prohibi-tion, or to promote illegal conduct by others. Most customary linking to content willingly placed on the Internet, however, is fair and lawful, even in those increasingly familiar situations where the linked site claims the right to authorize and control links. Linking law, which began with the Shetland Times headline-linking case in Scotland in late 1996,1 now includes a fair number of United States