CHAPTER 9 –FUNCTIONALISM: DARWIN, GALTON, CATTELL, JAMES & HALLDr. Nancy AlvaradoFunctionalists Functionalists were the first major non-German school of psychology. They were interested in studying the functions of the mind and the adaptive value of consciousness. These concerns were a product of the intellectual climate of the 19thcentury, dominated by Darwin’s theory of evolution. Their work was later extended by the American functionalists at the Univ. of Chicago and Columbia.Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Darwin was born to a wealthy family with interests in medicine and natural science. The pivotal experience of his life was his 5-year voyage on the Royal Navy survey ship, the H.M.S. Beagle, where he collected specimens. He first left med school & got a “poor” (third-class) degree in religion. He was initially seeking confirmation of the Biblical account of creation, but his experiences changed his mind.The Voyage of the BeagleAt each stop, Darwin travelled extensively inland.Questions Darwin’s findings raised many questions: Why had God created so many different species? Why had God allowed giant armadillos (found as fossils) to become extinct but not the smaller armadillos? Why had God allowed some species to become totally extinct? How would there have been room on the ark for the giant fossils?  How could the earth have been created in 4004 BC when the age of the fossils was much older?The Galapagos IslandsThe Galapagos Islands are part of the country of Ecuador.Galapagos Observations Tortoises from islands just 50-60 miles apart had clearly different shells. On one island, finches had strong thick beaks to crack nuts and seeds, while on another island they had smaller beaks and fed on insects. On a third island they had beaks better suited for eating fruit, berries & flowers. Darwin wondered how such differences had developed – perhaps species are not fixed but are able to adapt and change over generations.Theory of Evolution Darwin’s eventual theory was influenced by writings of several theorists before him: Darwin read Quetelet’s summary of Malthus’s view of population growth – Malthus predicted an increasingly severe struggle for existence due to lack of food. “It at once struck me that, under these circumstances, favorable variations would tend to be preserved and unfavorable ones destroyed” Darwin wrote. He called this idea “Natural selection” or “Survival of the Fittest.” (1859) He delayed publication for 20 yrs.Publication of His Theory First Darwin published his journal “The Voyage of the Beagle” which was very popular. In 1858, he became aware of Wallace’s theory of natural selection, and agreed to present both his and Wallace’s theory jointly to the Linnean Society. There was little reaction. In 1859, he published his “Origin of the Species,” which sold out immediately. His theory was hotly debated (see famous Oxford Wilberforce/Huxley debate on pg 308 of text).Similarity of Man to Animals Do we share behavioral, emotional and cognitive characteristics with other species? In “The Descent of Man,” Darwin argued that “there is no fundamental difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties.” (1871) Morgan’s canon: “In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale.”Mechanism Darwin suggested no genetic mechanism for evolutionary change. Lamarck proposed that acquired characteristics can be inherited by offspring, speeding up change. Gregor Mendel demonstrated inheritance of physical characteristics in plants and laid the foundation for modern genetics. This was the mechanism for evolution.Darwin’s Psychology “The Expression of the Emotions in Man & Animals.” Darwin studied facial expressions, anticipating later research by Paul Ekman. Darwin kept detailed records on the growth of his son, Erasmus, and published them in “A Biographical Sketch of an Infant” in Mind, 1877. His methods were repeated by Jane Goodall, Piaget, and B.F. Skinner. Darwin’s theory raised questions about the adaptive value of consciousness and mind & survivalFrancis Galton (1822-1911) Galton was one of the last amateur scientists, with eclectic interests: Meteorologist, experimented with stereoscopic photos, studied fingerprints, invented an early teletype. Anthropologist and explorer (sought source of the Nile). Galton was impressed by how well people he met had adapted to their harsh desert environment (Kalahari). He published “Art of Travel.”Individual Differences Galton was interested in measuring things: Whenever you can, count.” Fidgets per minute in kids, middle-aged and elderly. “Beauty map” of Britain. In 1884 he established an anthropometric laboratory to collect data on individual differences. Psychometrics – measurement of mental powers. Visual & auditory reaction times, highest audible tone. He published a method for quantifying correlation later derived mathematically by Karl Pearson (r). He used questionnaires, associations & tests of imagery.Galton as Hereditarian In “Hereditary Genius” he discussed the relative contributions of environment & genetics to ability. “I propose to show in this book that a man’s natural abilities are derived by inheritance under exactly the same limitations as are the form and physical features of the whole organic world.” He proposed that abilities were on the same continuum as other physical traits – Quetelet’s law of deviation from the average (like the normal curve). Quetelet & Galton established the “normal man”.Galton & Statistics Galton developed the following terms: Median, bell-shaped curve, correlation, dispersion, interquartile range, regression, percentile. Galton’s student Pearson introduced: Histogram, kurtosis, random sampling, random walk, skewness, standard deviation, variance. Formula for the correlation coefficient, Pearson’s r. The concept of dealing with individual differences in a probabilistic way – the characteristics of a population are regular, even if people are not.Nature and Nurture Galton argued that because talent seemed to concentrate in eminent