“As We May Think”As We May ThinkVannevar Bush, 19451945945•May: Allies victorious in Europe – beginning of the end of WW2•July: Vannevar Bush publishes “As We May Think”•July 16: Trinity nuclear test•August: First atomic bombs dropped on Japan – end of WW219461946•February: ENIAC, first Turing-complete machine, unveiled1947•December: Invention of the semiconducting transistor at Bell Labs19521952•November: First hydrogen bomb test detonation. ENIAC was used for calculations by scientists designing the H-bomb.Wartime ComputersWartime ComputersENIACENIACThe Military-Industrial ComplexThe MilitaryIndustrial Complex•1940: Vannevar Bush convinces FDR to support and provide funding for the “program” that would later be called the Military-Industrial Complex (or the Iron Triangle in NMR p 35)Iron Triangle in NMR, p. 35)•Collaborative relationship between military, industry and academic research•No congressional oversight on fundingSome developments that came out of the MIC:Mh Pj / Nk•Manhattan Project / Nukes•ENIAC •Space program/NASAEisenhower_farewell_address.mp3Space p og a / S•(D)ARPA (and Licklider)•Aspen Movie Map•ARPANET (the Internet)The gistThe gist• Atlantic Monthly magazine aimed at nation’s lead thinkers• Much scientific progress made during the war due to “demand of a common cause” (NMR 37).• Bush wants to redirect these efforts to peacetime goals (he became pg(disturbed by military’s destructiveness)• Turn mountain of information into mountain of knowledge–Have at our disposal, for our consultation, the record of the race.Have at our disposal, for our consultation, the record of the race.The problem(s)The problem(s)• “… publication has extended far beyond our present ability to make real use of the record” (NMR 38).• “…the means we use for threading through the consequent mazeto the momentarily important item is the same as it was used in the days of square-rigged ships” (NMR 38).•“About 85 per cent of my ‘thinking’ time was spent getting into 5p y g p g gposition to think… . Much more time went into finding or obtaining information than into digesting it. […] Throughout the period I examined, in short, my ‘thinking’ time was devoted mainly to activities that were essentially clerical or mechanical… .”– Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis” (NMR 76).To this endTo this end…Some new technologies:Some new technologies:• Mini cameraD h h•Dry photography• Hi-res microfilm• The Memex•Hypertext•HypertextVannevar’s 7-step ProgramVannevar s 7step ProgramSTEP 0: Make informationSTEP 0: Make information easier to capture and collect.easier to capture and collect.• E.g. Minicam, dry photographyVannevar’s 7-step ProgramVannevar s 7step Program•STEP 1: Reduce physical•STEP 1: Reduce physical space needed to store information.• Information storage on tiny microfilm with linear reduction factor of gy100 – fine-grained film, quality optics and lighting.• Magnetic tape was still some years away, hence the use of microfilm.• Microfilm of human-readable text is not very machine-readable.y– Bush proposes a system that amounts to OCR…– … but ultimately decides that machine-readable media like punch-cards are best, and if only humans could read them….Vannevar’s 7-step ProgramVannevar s 7step ProgramSTEP 2: Allow information to•STEP 2: Allow information to be recorded to file morebe recorded to file more efficiently.•Voder/Vocoder for voice-activated typing• Wasn’t Licklider hung up on this too?Vannevar’s 7-step ProgramVannevar s 7step ProgramSTEP 3: Farm out calculation•STEP 3: Farm out calculation and other repetitive grunt-and other repetitive gruntwork to machines.• Machines for the minutia of store inventory tracking.• Logic machines: plug in some premises in propositional logic, and it will crank out conclusions all day.Vannevar’s 7-step ProgramVannevar s 7step ProgramSTEP 4: Streamline the•STEP 4: Streamline the selection process.selection process.• Again, if only we all just used punch cards instead of letters, our representational system would be immediately machine-readable.Vannevar’s 7-step ProgramVannevar s 7step ProgramSTEP 5: Streamline selection•STEP 5: Streamline selection process.process.• “The prime action of use is selection” (NMR 42).• Scrap linear-search in favour of a switching paradigm– What computer scientists Dictionary search, using search treesVannevar’s 7-step ProgramVannevar s 7step ProgramSTEP 6: Make a device that•STEP 6: Make a device that eases associative selectioneases associative selection and consultation.Vannevar’s 7-step ProgramVannevar s 7step ProgramSTEP 7: Become a friggin’•STEP 7: Become a friggin’ cyborg.cyborg.• “All our steps in creating or absorbing material of the record proceed through one of the senses – the tactile when we touch keys, the oral when we speak or listen the visual when we read Is it not possible when we speak or listen, the visual when we read. Is it not possible that some day the path may be established more directly?” (NMR 47).HYPERTEXT: A Brief Historyy1945: The Memex (Vannevar Bush)6 Pj X d (Td Nl )1960: Project Xanadu (Ted Nelson)1960: Man-Computer Symbiosis (Licklider)1965: Ted Nelson coins terms “Hypertext” and “Hypermedia”9 5 yp yp1977: Aspen Movie Map, first Hypermedia app, at MIT (funded by ARPA)1980: ENQUIRE, by Tim Berners-Lee- Bi-directional hyperlinking- Wiki-style editing of databaseyg1991: World Wide Web made publicly accessible (again Berners-Lee)1995: WikiWikiWeb1995: WikiWikiWeb2000: Nupedia/WikipediaCharacteristics of the MemexCharacteristics of the Memex•Associative paths linkages webs•Associative paths, linkages, webs• Ability to write-inMi f d ilbl•Massive amount of data available• Browsing, index-lookup• Knowledge-sharing•“Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will •Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready made with a mesh of associative trails running through them associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified”there amplified.• “There is a new profession of trail blazers, th h fi d d li ht i th t k f those who find delight in the task of establishing useful trails through the f th d ”enormous mass of the common
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