Figure 7.7b. A conceptual model of a high-precipitation supercell. (a) The low-level precipitation structure and cloud features looking dwon from above. (b) Visual structures from an observer’s point of view to the east of the storm [from Dosell and B260Part 7. Conceptual Models of Cumulonimbi 7.1 Ordinary Cumulonimbus Clouds The ordinary cumulonimbus cloud or thunderstorm is distinguished by a well-defined lifecycle, illustrated in Figure 7.1 that lasts 45 minutes to one hour. Figure 7.1a illustrates the growth stage of the system. The growth stage is characterized by the development of towering cumulus clouds, generally in a region of low-level convergence of warm, moist air. Often during the growth stage, towering cumulus clouds merge to form a larger cloud system, or a vigorous cumulus cloud expands to a larger cloud. During the growth stage, updrafts dominate the cloud system and precipitation may be just beginning in the upper levels of the convective towers. The characteristics of the clouds during the growth stage of a thunderstorm are essentially indistinguishable from those of towering cumulus clouds. The only difference is that the towering cumulus clouds may be a bit more clustered together and the updrafts stronger. The mature stage of a cumulonimbus cloud commences with rain settling in the sub-cloud layer. Upon encountering the surface, the downdraft air spreads horizontally, where it can lift the warm moist air into the cloud system. At the interface between the cool, dense downdraft air and the warm, moist air, a gust front forms. Surface winds at the gust front are squally rapidly changing direction and speed. The warm, moist air lifted by the gust front provides the fuel for maintaining vigorous updrafts. Upon encountering the extreme stability at the top of the troposphere, called the tropopause, the updrafts spread horizontally, spewing ice crystals and other cloud debris horizontally to form an anvil cloud. In many cases, the updrafts are strong enough that they penetrate into the lower stratosphere, creating a cloud dome. Water loading and the entrainment of dry environmental air into the storm generate downdrafts in the cloud interior, which rapidly transport precipitation particles to the sub-cloud layer. The precipitation particles transported to the sub-cloud layer partially evaporate, further chilling the sub-cloud air and strengthening the low-level outflow and gust front. Thus, continued uplift of warm, moist air into the cloud system is sustained during the mature stage. Lowering of pressure at middle-levels in the storm as a result of warming by latent-heat release and diverging air flow results261Ordinary Cb Lifecycle Figure 7.1: Schematic model of the lifecycle of an ordinary thunderstorm. (a) The cumulus stage is characterized by one or more towers fed by low-level convergence of moist air. Air motions are primarily upward with some lateral and cloud top entrainment depicted. (b) the mature stage is characterized by both updrafts and downdrafts and rainfall. Evaporative cooling at low-levels forms a cold pool and gust front that advances, lifting warm-moist, unstable air. An anvil at upper levels begins to form. (c) The dissipating stage is characterized by downdrafts and diminishing convective rainfall. Stratiform rainfall from the anvil cloud is also common. The gust front advances ahead of the storm preventing air from being lifted at the gust front into the convective storm.262in an upward-directed, pressure-gradient force which helps draw the warm, moist air lifted at the gust front up to the height of the level of free convection. Thus, the thunderstorm becomes an efficient ``machine" during its mature stage, in which warming aloft and cooling at low-levels sustains the vigorous, convective cycle. The intensity of precipitation from the storm reaches a maximum during its mature stage. Thus, the mature cumulonimbus cloud is characterized by heavy-rainfall and gusty winds, particularly at the gust front (see Figure 7.2). The propagation speed of the gust front increases as the depth of the outflow air increases and the temperature of the outflow air decreases. The optimum storm system is one in which the speed of movement of the gust front is closely matched to the speed of movement of the storm as a whole. Figure 7.2: Illustration of a gust front formed at the leading edge of the downdraft outflow from a thunderstorm Once the gust front advances too far ahead of the storm system, air lifted at the gust front does not enter the updraft air of the storm, but may only form fair weather cumulus clouds. This marks the beginning of the dissipating stage of the thunderstorm, shown in Figure 7.1c. During the dissipating stage, updrafts weaken and downdrafts become predominant, rainfall intensity subsides, often turning into a period of light steady rainfall.263Ordinary thunderstorms are characterized by intense rainfall and strong, gusty winds at the surface. Often, the strong, gusty winds at the surface are evidence of strong downdrafts in the sub-cloud layer. If the depth of the sub-cloud layer is great and very dry, the downdrafts can be so strong that they pose a hazard to airplanes, particularly airplanes attempting to land at an airport at slow airspeeds. We call such strong, low-level downdrafts downbursts. If the downbursts form in deep, dry, sub-cloud layers they are referred to as dry downbursts. Occasionally, downbursts form from cumulonimbus clouds that have relatively shallow, moist, sub-cloud layers. They are referred to as wet downbursts and are usually accompanied by short bursts of intense rainfall. Not only are ordinary thunderstorms characterized by heavy rainfall, surface wind gusts, and occasional downbursts, they are also noted for the lightning they produce. 7.2 Severe Thunderstorms 7.2.1 Introduction Severe thunderstorms are the most violent storms on earth, capable of producing tornadoes with wind speeds in excess of 100 m/s (200 mph), damaging, straight-line winds, grapefruit-sized hailstones, and over 25 cm (10 in) of rainfall in 6 to 12 hours. Death and destruction is not limited to severe thunderstorms, however. As we have seen, ordinary thunderstorms produce dangerous lightning and downdrafts, called microbursts, that are hazardous to airplanes and can fell trees. We will focus in this chapter on the thunderstorm unit that is responsible for much