CSE115/ENGR160 Discrete Mathematics 01/27/111.5 Rules of InferenceArgument and inferenceValid arguments in propositional logicValid argumentsExampleSlide 7Rules of inference for propositional logicSlide 9Slide 10Slide 11Slide 12Slide 13ResolutionSlide 15Slide 16FallaciesSlide 18Inference with quantified statementsSlide 20Slide 21Universal modus ponensUniversal modus tollensCSE115/ENGR160 Discrete Mathematics01/27/11Ming-Hsuan YangUC Merced11.5 Rules of Inference•Proof: valid arguments that establish the truth of a mathematical statement•Argument: a sequence of statements that end with a conclusion•Valid: the conclusion or final statement of the argument must follow the truth of proceeding statements or premise of the argument2Argument and inference•An argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for all the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false•Rules of inference: use them to deduce (construct) new statements from statements that we already have•Basic tools for establishing the truth of statements3Valid arguments in propositional logic•Consider the following arguments involving propositions “If you have a correct password, then you can log onto the network” “You have a correct password” therefore, “You can log onto the network”4premisesconclusion qpqpValid arguments• is tautology•When ((p→q)˄p) is true, both p→q and p are ture, and thus q must be also be true•This form of argument is true because when the premises are true, the conclusion must be true5qpqp  ))((Example•p: “You have access to the network”•q: “You can change your grade”•p→q: “If you have access to the network, then you can change your grade” “If you have access to the network, then you can change your grade” (p→q) “You have access to the network” (p)so “You can change your grade” (q)6Example “If you have access to the network, then you can change your grade” (p→q) “You have access to the network” (p)so “You can change your grade” (q)•Valid arguments•But the conclusion is not true•Argument form: a sequence of compound propositions involving propositional variables7Rules of inference for propositional logic•Can always use truth table to show an argument form is valid•For an argument form with 10 propositional variables, the truth table requires 210 rows•The tautology is the rule of inference called modus ponens (mode that affirms), or the law of detachment 8qpqp  ))(( qqppExample•If both statements “If it snows today, then we will go skiing” and “It is snowing today” are true. •By modus ponens, it follows the conclusion “We will go skinning” is true 9Example•The premises of the argument are p→q and p, and q is the conclusion•This argument is valid by using modus ponens•But one of the premises is false, consequently we cannot conclude the conclusion is true•Furthermore, the conclusion is not true10 true?conclusion Is argument? validait Is49)23(2)2(,lyConsequent232 that know We.)23()2( then 232 If222211Example–“It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday” –“We will go swimming only if it is sunny”–“If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip”–“If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset” Can we conclude“We will be home by sunset”?12(7) and (6) using ponens modus )8hypothesis )7(4) using ponens modus )6hypothesis )5(3) and (2) using tollensmodus )4hypothesis )3 (1) usingon simplicati )2hypothesis )1ttsssrrprpqpqp pr sr ts tExample–“If you send me an email message, then I will finish my program” –“If you do not send me an email message, then I will go to sleep early”–“If I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling refreshed”–“If I do not finish writing the program, then I will wake up feeling refreshed”13(5) and (4) using syllogism alhypothetic )6hypothesis )5(3) and (2) using syllogism lhypotheica )4hypothesis )3 (1) of tivecontraposi )2hypothesis )1sqsrrqrppqqpqp rp sr sq Resolution•Based on the tautology•Resolvent: •Let q=r, we have •Let r=F, we have•Important in logic programming, AI, etc. 14)())()(( rqrpqp qqpqp  )()(qpqp  )(rq Example•“Jasmine is skiing or it is not snowing” •“It is snowing or Bart is playing hockey” imply•“Jasmine is skiing or Bart is playing hockey”15rqrppqExample•To construct proofs using resolution as the only rule of inference, the hypotheses and the conclusion must be expressed as clauses•Clause: a disjunction of variables or negations of these variables 16srsrrqrprqpspsrrqp)()()( imply and )( ShowFallacies•Inaccurate arguments• is not a tautology as it is false when p is false and q is true•If you do every problem in this book, then you will learn discrete mathematics. You learned discrete mathematics Therefore you did every problem in this book17pqqp  ))((qqp  )(Example• is it correct to conclude ┐q?•Fallacy: the incorrect argument is of the form as ┐p does not imply ┐q18pqp  )(pqqp  )(Inference with quantified statements19Instantiation:c is one particular memberof the domainGeneralization:for an arbitrary member cExample•“Everyone in this discrete mathematics has taken a course in computer science” and “Marla is a student in this class” imply “Marla has taken a course in computer science”20(3) and (2) from ponens modus )(.4premise )(.3 (1) fromion instantiat universal )()(.2premise ))()((.1Mar lacMarladMarlacMar ladxcxdxExample•“A student in this class has not read the book”, and “Everyone in this class passed the first exam” imply “Someone who passed the first exam has not read the book”21(8) formtion generaliza lexistentia ))()((.9(7) and (6) ofn conjunctio )()(.8(2) fromon simplicati )(.7(5) and (3) from ponens modus )(.6(4) fromion instantiat universal )()(.5premise )()((.4(2) fromion simpliciat )(.3 (1) fromion instantiat lexistentia )()(.2premise