Exam # 1 Study Study Guide Lecture 1 (September 3)Introduction to Anthropology:What is Anthropology?The study of humans across all space and timeThings to know about culture:1. Culture is learned, shared, passed down across generations2. Culture is always changing3. Culture is a major human adaptation Lecture 2 (September 8) What are the steps to the scientific method? Anthro 103 1st edition1. Identify problem based on observations2. State the hypothesis3. Collect data (observations)4. Test the hypothesis: reject or acceptBiological Anthropology subgroups:1. Primatology - study of nonhuman primates2. Paleoanthropology - study of human origins using fossils and other remains3. Human biology - what our biology/anatomy is like todayLecture 3 and 4 (September 10, 15)Contributions of scientists and their significance:Aristotle - noticed that animals from the water behaved in a similar way and had similar anatomy (gills, etc)Ptolemy - observed planetary motion; believed in geocentrism, that the Earth is at the center of the worldSteno - studied strata; superposition - the layers in the Earth show change over time going form most recent to oldest, as you dig farther Robert Hooke (1665) - proved that fossils are the remains of organisms, which meant that fossilscould be studied to determine the history of past life; some species go extinct, like trilobitesCarolus Linnaeus (1735) - systematically named species using binomial nomenclatureGeorges Cuvier (1796) - there are fossils of extinct species, so the world is not static; catastrophism (cataclysmic events cause geologic changes) explains the change of the planetThomas Malthus (1798) - believed carrying capacity was limited by amount of resources (food); led to idea that certain characteristics were better for survivalJean Baptiste de Lamarck (1809) - characteristics gained through inheritance - physical traits pass from parents to offspring; had the first hypothesis of evolution - environmental changes cause species to change (ex: giraffe's neck stretches to reach leaves higher up on trees)Sir Charles Lyell (1830) - uniformitarianism - geological processes are the same in the past and present (wind, rain, erosion); the world is oldHow the world was viewed back then:-The world remains constant - there is no evolution, there is no extinction of species-There is a grand design - seals are made to swim-There is a chain of being - organisms can be ranked in a ladder-like fashion (humans are at the top)-The Earth is young (not true)Lecture 5 (September 17)Somatic cells:-are all cells except sex cells-formed through mitosis-diploid (contains all of an individual's DNA, 46 chromosomes)Sex cells:-egg (ovum) and sperm-formed through meiosis-haploid (contains half of an individual's DNA, 23 chromosomes)Human chromosomes:-22 pairs of autosomes-1 pair of sex chromosomesLecture 6, 7, 8 (September 22, 24, 29)Prominent theory in Gregor Mendel's time was of blending inheritance (phenotype of offspring is a blend of parent's phenotypes)Ex: Green and yellow seed result in blended color seedMendel experimented with seedsFilial = new generationMendel's experiment showed that inheritance is not random - there is a patternParticulate inheritance - there are particles, like inheritance units, that are transferred across generationsThere are alleles (factors) for each trait (2 alleles for height: short and tall)Genotype = affects genetic makeup; the "factors" that you get from mother and fatherPhenotype = outward physical appearance; consequence of the genetic "factors"Locus (loci) = gene color occurs in a place, the locus; particular place on the chromosome that determines the trait (seed color)Codominance = neither allele is dominant or recessive, both expressedIncomplete dominance = neither allele is dominant, but neither is fully expressedEx: Red and white flower mixed, you get a pink flowerMendel's Law of Segregation:The alleles that are together in the parents get shuffled, eggs could have two dominant,two recessive, a mix of bothMendel's Law of Independent Assortment:Chromosomes separate independently from one anotherMeiosis - each sex cell has half the normal number of chromosomesMitosis - daughter cells are copies of parent cellLinkage - (not sorted independently) A goes with B, a goes with bA------Ba------bCross over - chromosomes cross over and you could get A and bA-----ba-----BPolygenic trait: many genes contribute to a single effectPleiotropy: a gene has multiple effectsHow do we genetically characterize a population?-Gene pool: sum the genes of everyone and you get the gene pool-Total collection of alleles: gene pool is full of alleles; count how many alleles are dominant and how many are recessive-Allele frequencies: frequency of an allele in a population; 74% of a dominant allele in one population versus 24% frequency in another population-Compare populationsPopulation - group of individuals who typically breed between themselvesWhat is evolution?-Biological change over timeHow can allele frequency change?1. Mutation2. Natural Selection3. Gene flow4. Genetic drif1. Mutation - changing allele frequency in population over timeChange has to be in the gamete because that is what is passed on to the next generationEx: have skin cancer (mutation) but don't pass skin cells on to next generationMutations are:Random - do not occur when it is convenientEnvironmental - mutagens, caused by pollution, chemicalsMechanical - there was a copy error during replication or protein synthesisPoint mutations (SNPs) - single nucleotide polymorphisms (Adenine becomes Guanine); single nucleotide substitutions in the DNAChromosomalMutations can be harmful, neutral, or beneficialGametes - have to be in the gamete for it to affect future generations, for there to be potential evolutionary consequence2. Natural Selection"Fitness is relative" - No such thing as absolute fitness, depends on the environmentEx: Black and white peppered moth. White moths had higher fitness at first because they blended in with trees. When environment changed and trees were covered in black soot, black moths had higher fitness.What are the two types of Natural selection?Directional selection and stabilizing selectionDirectional selection: Go from one extreme to the otherDirection is not permanent. Changing environment changes selective pressure. White moths may become predominantly black, but with another environmental change, theycan go back to being white moths. (Note: Individuals