Retrieval CuesEncoding-Retrieval MatchContext-Dependent MemoryState-Dependent MemoryMood-Dependent MemoryHow quickly do we forget?Forgetting curvesRetroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference and SleepProactive InterferencePositive TransferEncoding & Retrieval FailureSlide 13Retrieval CuesRetrieval challenge: memory is not stored as a file that can be retrieved by searching alphabetically.Instead, it is stored as a web of associations :conceptualcontextualemotionalMemory involves a web of associated conceptsEncoding-Retrieval Match•Memories will be better-retrieved when given cues that increase the activation of the memory.•EFFECTIVE RECALL = Encoding and Retrieval cues match.Context-Dependent MemoryPart of the web of associations of a memory is the context. What else was going on at the time we formed the memory?We retrieve a memory more easily when in the same context as when we formed the memory.Words learned underwater are better retrieved underwater.State-Dependent MemoryMemories can also be tied to the emotional state we were in when we formed the memory.Mood-congruent memory refers to the tendency to selectively recall details that are consistent with ones current mood.•Memory for past events will be retrieved easiest when the person is in the same mood state as when the event was initially experienced. Memories can even be linked to physiological states:Mood-Dependent MemoryWeingartner, Miller, & Murphy (1977)•Psychiatric patients with significant mood swings•Generate free associations with common nouns in fixed amount of time•Patients could recall more associations if the noun matched the mood they were in •Positive or negativeHow quickly do we forget?•Depends on–How it was encoded –Whether it was encountered again later–Kinds of retrieval cues present at time of remembering•Ebbinghaus’ work: Documented the forgetting function–Rapid loss, followed by gradual decline (the Ebbinghaus Curve)–Based on memory for nonsense syllablesForgetting curvesRetroactive Interference•New stimuli/learning interferes with the storage and retrieval of previously formed memories = new memories interfere with older memories •Do you remember your best friend’s phone number from 8th grade?–What about your current best friend’s number?Old Knowledge NewKnowledgeNewKnowledgeRetroactive Interference and SleepIn one study, students who studied right before eight hours of sleep had better recall than those who studied before eight hours of daily activities.The daily activities retroactively interfered with the mornings learningProactive Interference•Past information interferes with learning new information = old memories interfere with newer memories–Playing tennis makes it hard to learn squash, racquetball.–You had to change email passwords, but you keep typing the old one and can’t seem to memorize the new one.futurepastNewKnowledgeNewKnowledgeinterferenceOld KnowledgePositive TransferOccasionally, the opposite happens. In positive transfer, Learning algebra makes it easier to learn calculusLearning biology makes it easier to learn about neuronsEncoding & Retrieval FailureFailed to encode into long term memory leads to forgetting Retrieval failure: decays in the associations and links that help us find our way to the stored memory.Applying what we’ve learned about memoryImproving Memory to Improve GradesLearn the material in more than one way, not just by rote, but by creating many retrieval cues Minimize interference with related material or fun activities; study right before sleep. Have multiple study sessions, spaced further and further apart after first learning material. Spend your study sessions activating your retrieval cues including context (recalling where you were when learning the material) Test yourself in study sessions: 1) to practice doing retrieval as if taking a test, and 2) to overcome the overconfidence error: the material seems familiar, but you can explain it in your own wordsThink of examples and connections Create mnemonics: songs, images,