Stuy Guide for Exam #1Psychology 250: Introduction to Developmental PsychologyChapter 2: Theories of Development [LECTURE 2]theory: systematic set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behaviorproduce hypotheses, generate discoveriesoffer practical guidanceconflictsdetermine personality patterns because early stages provide foundation for adulthood (eg. Parents weening babaies (oral), teachers want children to become independent of parents (phallic)psychoanalytic theory: behavior is motivated by inner drivesdeep motives reflect the unconscious minddefense mechanismsearly childhood experiences are keyChapter 3: Heredity & Environment [LECTURE 3]biological foundations of human development: heredity and environmentChapter 4: Prenatal Development & Birth [LECTURE 4]Chapter 5: The First Two Years—Biosocial Development [LECTURE 5]Chapter 6: The First Two Years—Cognitive Development [LECTURE 6]Stuy Guide for Exam #1Psychology 250: Introduction to Developmental PsychologyChapter 1: Introduction [LECTURE 1]- development: understand how and why people change and remain the same over timeo Is a science, studies all kinds of people, studies change over time- 5 characteristics of the lifespan perspective:o Multidirectional Continuity (characteristics stable over time, eg. Biological sex) Discontinuity (characteristics unlike those that came before eg. Quitting a drug)o Multicontextual Historical cohort: all people born within a few years of each other Socioeconomic status (SES): combination of income, parental education and occupationo Multicultural (values, technologies, customs, clothes, food, behaviors, etc of a group of people)o Multidisciplinary (biological, cognitive, medicine, psychology, economics etc)o Plasticity (possibility of change) human traits can be molded into different forms and yet people maintain a durability of identity some aspects of development have the capacity for change, and others may not- theory- hypothesis- 5 basic steps of the scientific method (way to seek empirical evidence to answer a question)1. formulate a research question2. develop a hypothesis3. test the hypothesis4. draw conclusions (limitation: generalization of findings)5. make findings available- advantages/disadvantages of 4 methods of data collection: o observation: correlational: cant say anything about cause and effect (only in an experiment can you because of highly controlled variables)o experimento survey: not depth of knowledge, broad o case study: good starting point for future research - strengths/weaknesses of 3 research designs for studying change over timeo cross-sectional- examines groups of people of different ages at same point in timeo longitudinal- data is collected repeatedly on the same individuals over timeo cross-sequential- studies several groups of different ages and then follows those groups longitudinallyo PROBLEM: death/ dropout (deaths not random, apply to certain samples more than others, ie. Low income)- difference between a correlational study & an experiment (cause & effect)- CORRELATIONAL: data collected without altering a participant’s experiences- Reveals relations among variables but NOT cause and effect (e.g. study on abuse and effect)- CORRELATION COEFFICIENT: positive or negative correlation between two variables- Correlation does NOT equal causation- EXPERIMENTAL: scientist manipulates a variable to see if it affects another variable- Able to establish cause and effect- Eg. Watching violent TV increases aggressive behavior in children- independent vs. dependent variable1- independent: treatment variable that is manipulated by the experimenter (eg violent vs. non-violent cartoons)- dependent variable: specific behavior or outcome that is measured by the experimenter (eg aggressive behavior in the classroom)- experimental vs. control group- participants in experiment are randomly assigned to two groups: experimental group and control group- random assignment: each person has an equal chance of being played in each groupChapter 2: Theories of Development [LECTURE 2]o theory: systematic set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavioro produce hypotheses, generate discoverieso offer practical guidanceo conflictso determine personality patterns because early stages provide foundation for adulthood (eg. Parents weening babaies (oral), teachers want children to become independent of parents (phallic)o psychoanalytic theory: behavior is motivated by inner driveso deep motives reflect the unconscious mindo defense mechanismso early childhood experiences are key- Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development—3 parts of the personalityo ido unconscious, present at birth biological needs (food, warmth, comfort)o mostly sexual and agressiveo egoo conscious, rational part of mindo emerges in early infancyo masters and controls urgeso superegoo develops from parent-child interactions (age 3-6)o social-moral component (ie. The consciousness)o role of conflicts between biological drives & social expectationso psychosexual phaseso oral (sucking, feeding)o anal (toilet training)o phallic (penis obsession)o latency (sexual activity quiet)o genital (sex)- Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (main points—NO specifics about 8 stages) o life-span theory that focuses on the impact of relationships in shaping personalityo 8 psychosocial stages characterized by a developmental crisis/ challenge- Learning Theories: o Traditional Behaviorism (i.e., classical conditioning)o Our experiences shape who we areo John Watson: psychology should be about things we can observe  see and measureo Relationships to family and culture, not sexual urgeso Everything can be learnedo Development occurs in small incrementso CLASSICAL CONDITIONING  Pavlov2 Learning by association: a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (eg Pavlov’s dog learned to respond to a bell (neutral stumuls as if it were food (meaningful stimulus))o Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (i.e., reinforcement & punishment)o Reinforcement: only consequence that makes a behavior more likely to occur; something taken away (negative or positive)o Punishment: only consequence that makes behavior LESS likely to occuro Self-efficacy: personal achievements depend on personal actiono Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (i.e., role modeling)o Behavior is learned through observation and