BIOL 244Exam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 11Lecture 1-4 (August 31, 26, 28, September 2, ); all 4 of these chapters are chapter 23, the digestive systemDigestion SystemDescribe the two main groups that organs fall into and their organs? Name the function of each organ and what they secrete. What are the different types of digestive processes? Two main groups:- Alimentary canal:o Mouth 1st stage of digestion Secretion is saliva Enzymes that help in the breakdown of carbohydrates (especially starches) with amylaseo Pharynx Shared between digestion system and respiratory system Allows passage of food, liquids, & airo Esophagus  Muscular tube about 25 cm long, collapsed when not involved in food propulsiono Stomach “storage tank” Where chemical breakdown of proteins begin & food converted to a creamy paste called chymeo Small intestine- body’s major digestive organ All digestion is completed and all absorption occurso Large intestineo Anus- Accessory digestive organs:o Teetho Tongueo Gallbladder Stores bile that is not immediately needed for digestion & concentrates it by absorbing some of its water and ionso Salivary glandso Liver- largest gland in the body Hepatocyte functions- Process bloodborne nutrients- Store fat-soluble vitamins- Perform detoxification- Produce about 900 ml bile per dayo Bile emulsifies fato Pancreas Produces enzymes that breakdown all categories of foodstuff & then delivers to the duodenumDigestive process:- Ingestion- Propulsion- Mechanical digestion- Chemical digestion- Absorption- DefecationLecture 5 (September 4) Vitamins & MineralsWhat is a vitamin? What are the water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins? What are minerals?Vitamins- organic compounds necessary in a very small amount for body structure & function.Water-soluble vitamins:- Vitamin B complexo Vitamin B 1 (thiamin)o Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)o Vitamin B3 (niacin)o Vitamin B6 (pantothenic acid)o Vitamin B9 (folic acid)o Vitamin B12 (pantothenic acid)- Vitamin C (folic acid)Fat-soluble vitamins:- Vitamin A- Vitamin D- Vitamin E- Vitamin Minerals- absolutely necessary for different body structure & function, small amounts only- Calcium- Phosphorus- Sulfur- Potassium- Sodium- Chlorine- Magnesium- Iron- Fluorine- Zinc- Copper- Manganese- Iodine Lecture 6 (September 9) NutritionWhat is a nutrient? Define where carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are found.Nutrient: a substance in food that promotes normal growth, maintenance, & repair- Major nutrients aka energy-yielding nutrientso Carbohydrateso Lipidso Proteins- Otherso Vitaminso Mineralso WaterCarbohydrates- Dietary sourceso Starch in grains & vegetableso Sugars in fruits, sugarcane, honey, & milko Insoluble fiber- cellulose in vegetables- Dietary requirementso Minimum 100 grams/daily to maintain blood glucose levelsLipids- Dietary sourceso Triglycerides Saturated fats in meat, dairy foods, & tropical oils Unsaturated fats in seeds, nuts, olive oil, & most vegetable oilso Cholesterol in egg yolk, meats, shellfish, & diary- Dietary requirementso Fats 30% or less of total kcalorieso Saturated fats 10% or less of total fat intakeo Daily cholesterol intake should be no more than 300 mgProteins- Dietary sourceso Eggs, milk, fish, & most meatso Legumes, nuts, & cereal=incomplete proteins aka amino acids- Dietary requirements rule of thumb: daily intake 0.8 g/kg body weightWhat is metabolism and types of it? Define cellular respiration.Metabolism- biochemical reactions inside cells involving nutrients- Anabolism- synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones (small  big)- Catabolism- hydrolysis of complex structures to simpler ones (large  small)Cellular respiration- catabolism of food fuels and capture of energy to form ATP in cellsLecture 7 and 8 (September 11 & 16) Chapter 17: BloodWhat is the cardiovascular system? What are the functions of the circulatory system? Define blood and all of its components.Cardiovascular system- consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood- Functions of circulatory systemo Transportation of O2, CO2, nutrients, waste, hormones, & stem cellso Protection: inflammation, limit spread of infection, destroy microorganisms & cancer cells, neutralize toxins, & initiates clottingo Regulation: fluid balance, stabilize pH of ECF, and temperature controlBlood- a liquid connective tissue consisting of cells and extracellular matrix- Plasma- a liquid matrix of blood; clear, light yellow fluido Serum- remaining fluid when blood clots & the solids are removed (does not contain fibrinogen)o 3 major types of plasma proteins Albumins- smallest and most abundant- Viscosity and osmolarity - Influences blood pressure- Flow and fluid balance Globulins (antibodies)- Provide immune system functions Fibrinogen- precursor of fibrin threads that help form blood clots- 3 major types of formed elements (blood cells)o Erythrocytes (red blood cells)o Leukocytes (white blood cells) Granulocytes - Neutrophils- Eosinophils- Basophils  Agranulocytes - Lymphocytes- Monocytes o Thrombocytes (platelets)- cell fragments from special cell in bone marrowWhat are deficiencies of blood? Describe the coagulation pathways.Anemia- inadequate erythropoiesis or hemoglobin synthesisSickle-Cell Disease- caused by a recessive allele that modifies the structure of the hemoglobin molecule (HbS)- Differs only on the 6th amino acid of the beta chain- HbS does not bind oxygen well- Erythrocytes become rigid, sticky, & pointed at ends- Clump together and block small blood vessels causing intense pain- Can lead to kidney or heart failure, stroke, rheumatism or paralysisClotting Disorders- deficiency of any clotting factor can shut down the coagulation cascade- Hemophilia: family of hereditary diseases characterized by deficiencies of one factor or another- Hematomas: masses of clotted blood in the tissue- Thrombosis: abnormal clotting un unbroken vessel Coagulation Pathways- Extrinsic pathway: initiated by release of tissue thromboplastin from damaged tissue- Intrinsic pathway: initiated by platelets releasing Hageman factor - Calcium required for both pathwaysLecture 9, 10 and 11 (September 18, 23, and 25) What are the circuits of the heart? Describe heart wall layers. What are the four heart chambers? Describe the valves in the heart.Circuits- Pulmonary Circuit: blood vessels that carry blood to and from lungs for gas exchange- Systemic Circuit: blood vessels that carry