BIOL 3451 1nd EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 9Lecture 1 (August 26)- Who is Mendel and why is his work important?o Monk who used quantitative analysis on plantso Determined how traits are passed from parents to offspring- What is the chromosomal theory of inheritance?o Inherited traits are determined by genes that are on chromosomeso Genes transmitted through gametes to maintain genetic continuityo Understand these terms: Mitosis: cell division where daughter cells receive diploid set of chromosomes Meiosis: cell division where daughter cells receive haploid set of chromosomes (gamete formation) Haploid: receiving only 1 chromosome from each pair Diploid: receiving both chromosomes in the pair Homologous chromosomes: pairs of identical chromosomes Mutation: heritable change, source of genetic variation Genotype: what we have genetically Phenotype: what displayed physically Allele: alternate forms of genes- What are the differences between RNA and DNA?o Differences: it is single stranded, has Uracil instead of Thymine, sugar is ribose instead of deoxyribose, and is less stable than DNA- What is the central dogma of genetics? Explain the process.o DNA to RNA= transcription (in nucleus)o RNA to protein= translation (mRNA binds to ribosome in cytoplasm)o Protein made up of amino acids in sets of three (called a codon)o tRNA helps to assemble proteins- What is recombinant DNA and how has this changed genetics?o Utilizing restriction enzymes that cuts DNA at specific sites, then we were able insert desired fragments into vectors to make recombinant DNAo Led to cloning, and biotechnology- What is biotechnology and how has it affected industries in the US?o Modifying DNA to create modified organismso Used in crops for mass production, insect repellant; mass production of medicineLecture 2 (August 28)- What is the difference between genomics and proteomics? o Genomics: analyzing genome sequences to study structure, function, and evolution of geneso Proteomics: (outgrowth of genomics) looks at proteins in a set of conditions and studies locations within cells and their interactionso Bioinformatics: stores, retrieves, and analyzes data from genomics and proteomics- What are model organisms and how have they affected the study of genetics?o Organisms commonly studied because of the ease that they can be manipulated experimentally, and because their genetics are well knowno Used to gain knowledge about human diseases- What are some characteristics of model organisms?o Easy to grow/breedo Relatively short life cycleso Genetic analysis is relatively straightforwardo Produce lots of offspring- Rise of Genetics has influenced profound changes in societyo Ethical issueso Prenatal testingo Access to/safety of gene therapyo Legality issueso Ownership of genes- Understand the general structure of cells and how relates to the functiono *Only spent time in class on what is listed below*o Eukaryotic: has membrane-bound structureso DNA is in nucleuso Prokaryotic: doesn’t have membrane-bound structureso All cells have plasma membraneo Plants: cell wall made of cellulose o Bacteria: have peptidoglycan on their cell wallo Receptor molecules on surfaces of cellso Terms to know and understand function with genetic processes:o Nucleuso Ribosomeo Centrioleo Centrosomeo Spindle fibers- Understand homologous chromosomes, diploidy, and haploidy, and how relates to meiosiso Diploid: two copies of each gene in form of: o Homologous chromosomes: Carry genes for the same inherited characteristics  They are not identical May carry different versions of the same geneo The diploidy occurs in somatic cells only! Sex chromosomes appear homologous, butare not similaro Haploidy: 1 copy of each gene; results in animals after the second division in meiosis- Understand the cell cycle and what happens at each stageo Interphase (most of cell’s time spent here) S phase: DNA synthesis 2 gap phases (G1 and G2) Fig. 2.5 G0: withdraw from G1 phase, but still active (like a pit stop)o Mitosis (realistically, these phases are very fast) Prophase centrioles divide and move apart nuclear envelope breaks down chromosomes condense and become visible Sister chromatids are connected at the centromere Prometaphase Chromosomes move to the equatorial plane of the cell Metaphase centromeres (chromosomes) align at equatorial plane Spindle fibers bind to kinetochores (proteins at centromere) to move chromosomes Anaphase Sister chromatids (daughter chromosomes) separate from each other and migrate to opposite poles  Telophase  Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) Uncoiling of chromosomes Reformation of nuclear envelope Daughter cells have full diploid compliment of chromosomes- Know meiosis and how it differs from mitosiso Purpose: increase genetic diversity o Two parts: Meiosis I and Meiosis IIo S1 phase (DNA replication) occurs before Meiosis 1, but not Meiosis IIo Meiosis Stages Prophase I 5 substageso Leptonemao Zygonema- Homologous chromosomes pair with each other (synapsis)o Pachynema- Forms into tetrads- During synapsis, genetic material exchanges (cross over)o Endonuclease cuts non-sister chromatids at same pointso Exchange of broken chromatid segmentso Ligase reunites segments on non-sister chromatids Metaphase I Shortest phase Tetrads line up at metaphase plate Independent assortmento Infinite number of genetic possibilities Reductional Division (Anaphase I and Telophase I) Tetrads split (not sister chromatids!) Know 3 ways of genetic variation (whole point of meiosis) Meiosis II Resolves genetic diversity from Meiosis I Sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles Each haploid daughter cell has 1 member of each pair of homologous chromosomes Same as mitosis, just half of chromosomesLecture 3 (September 2)- Know spermatogenesis and oogenesis. What is significant about the polar bodies?o Spermatogenesis: production of sperm in testeso Oogenesis: production of eggs in ovary Only 1 of 4 survive (called the ovum/egg and the other 3 are polar bodieso Divisions of oogenesis are not continuous (in some species, like humans) like spermatogenesis o Notice differences in number produced after meiosis I and Meiosis IIo Difference in spermatids and spermatozoa: development called spermiogenesis- Importance of Meiosiso Main function is to promote genetic