BSC 215 1nd EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Chapters 1-3Chapter 1: Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology1.1 The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy is the study of structure, and physiology is the study of function Physiology leans meaning to anatomy, and conversely, anatomy is what makes physiology possible – unity of form and function Inspection- simply looking at the body’s appearance, as in performing a physical examination or making a clinical diagnosis from surface appearance Palpation means feeling a structure with the hands o Such as palpating a swollen lymph node or taking a pulse Auscultation is listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as heart and lung sounds In percussion, the examiner taps on the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of fluid or air A deeper understanding of the body comes from dissection – the cutting and separating of tissues Cadaver is a dead human body Comparative anatomy is the study of multiple species in order to examine similarities and differences and analyze evolutionary trends Dissection is not an option on living bodies, so exploratory surgery is sometimes an option – opening the body and taking a look inside to see what is wrong and what could be done about it Exploratory surgery is often replaced with medical imaging techniques  The branch of medicine concerned with imaging is called radiology Structure that can be seen with the naked eye – whether by surface observation, radiology, or dissection – is called gross anatomy Histology is the approach of microscopic anatomy Cytology is the study of the structure and function of individual cells Physiology has subdisciplines such as neurophysiology (physiology of the nervous system), endocrinology (physiology of hormones), and pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease) Comparative physiology is the study of how different species have solved problems of life such as water balance, respiration, and reproductiono It is also the basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures1.5 Human Structure Hierarchy of complexity:o The organism is composed of organ systems,o Organ systems are composed of organs,o Organs are composed of tissues,o Tissues are composed of cells,o Cells are composed partly of organelles,o Organelles are composed of molecules, ando Molecules are composed of atoms The organism is a single, complete individual An organ system is a group of organs with a unique collective function, such as circulation, respiration, or digestiono The human body has 11 organ systems: the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems An organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular functiono There can be organs within organso Organs can belong to two organ systems A tissue is a mass of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific functiono The body is composed of four types of tissue: epithelial, connective, nervous, andmuscular tissueo Histology is the study of tissues Cells are the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life; nothing simpler than a cell is considered aliveo Cytology is the study of cells Organelles are microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions. Examples include mitochondria, centrioles, and lysosomes Organelles and other cellular components are composed of molecules. A molecule is a particle composed of at least two atoms, the smallest particles with unique chemical properties Reductionism is the theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simpler components Holism is the complementary theory that there are “emergent properties” of the whole organism that cannot be predicted from the properties of its separate parts – human beings are more than the sum of their parts1.6 Human Function Characteristics of life:o Organization: living things exhibit a far higher level of organization than the nonliving world around them. They expend a great deal of energy to maintain order, and a breakdown in this order is accomplished by disease and often deatho Cellular composition: living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cellso Metabolism: living things take in molecules from the environment and chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide them with energyo Responsiveness and movement: the ability of organisms to sense and react to stimuli is called responsiveness, irritability, or excitability o Homeostasis: the ability to maintain internal stabilityo Development: any change in form or function over the lifetime of the organismo Reproduction: all living organisms can produce copies of themselves, thus passing their genes on to new, younger containers – their offspringo Evolution: all living species exhibit genetic change from generation to generation and therefore evolve. This occurs because mutations are inevitable and because environmental selection pressures favor the transmission of some genes more than others Homeostasis is the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions Pathophysiology is essentially the study of unstable conditions that result when our homeostatic controls go awry The internal start of the body is best described as a dynamic equilibrium (balanced change), which there is a set point or average value for a given variable and conditions fluctuate slightly around this point The fundamental mechanism that keeps a variable close to its set point is negative feedback – a process in which the body sense a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them, they are often called feedback loops If you become overheated, one heat-losing mechanism is vasodilation, the widening of blood vesselso When blood vessels of the skin dilate, warm blood flows closer to the body surface and loses heat to the surrounding air When you become cold, one heat-conserving mechanism is vasoconstriction, a narrowing of the