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UWL BIO 312 - Exam 1 Study Guide

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Bio 312Exam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 6Lectures 1, 2Lectures 1 and 2 focused on basic anatomy and physiology terms and definitions, homeostasis ofthe body, body fluid, and fluid movement in the body.Anatomy and Physiology:- Cells: smallest units in body capable of carrying out lifeo Have basic and specialized functions- Tissues: groups of cells and cell products working together to perform one or more specific functionso 4 main types are nervous, muscular, epithelial, and connective- Organs: 2 or more types of tissues working togetherInternal environment and Homeostasis:- Homeostasis: maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment of the body necessary for the survival of individual cellso Some of these maintained conditions include pH, electrolyte concentration, O2 and CO2 levels, nutrient levels, waste levels, temperature, and cell size/volumeo Negative feedback control: based off a negative disturbance, body makes changes to correct or minimize disturbance Imbalance in conditions detected Input information sent along afferent pathway to control center Output info sent along efferent pathway to effector Response to output info causes changes to attempt to return to homeostaticconditionso Positive feedback control: continuation of a process started on a small scale which becomes larger and more dramatic with the body’s perpetuation of that process Example includes baby’s head pushing against the wall of the mother’s uterus which causes the release of hormones telling the uterus to expand. The more the uterus expands, the more the baby’s head can push against it and increase the amount of this hormone releasedBody fluid, cell membrane and fluid movement: - Water is most abundant substance in the body- 2 categories of solutes include electrolytes and nonelectrolyteso Vast majority are electrolyteso Almost all electrolytes have same concentration in cell as they do in extracellular fluid- Cell membrane: barrier composed of phospholipid bilayer with a polar head and nonpolar tailso Contains proteins classified by position and function which are used to transport materials across membrane- Diffusion: movement from higher to lower concentrationo Only efficient over short distances- Carrier mediated transport: use of carrier protein to move solute across mediumo Can be passive or active- Osmosis: diffusion of water down a gradiento Osmotic pressure: pressure that must be applied to a solution on one side of a membrane to prevent osmotic flow across the membraneo Solutions can be described according to their concentration of non-penetrating solutes Isotonic: equal concentration of solutes in and out of cell Hypotonic: higher concentration of solutes in the cell than outside the cell, water moves into cell Hypertonic: lower concentration of solutes out of cell than inside cell, water moves out of cellLectures 3,4 Connective tissues, Cartilage, Bone- Connective Tissue: comprised of connective tissue cells which produce material called matrix which surrounds cellso Matrix composed of ground substance and fiberso Fibers are major component of matrix and consist of collagen, reticular, and elastic- Cartilage: found in any articulating surface or any surface in need of cushiono Hyaline: flexible, rubber like, resilient, strong and able to support weight Consists of widely scattered cells called chondrocytes surrounded by matrix (seeds in a watermelon) Ground substance: composed mostly of proteoglycans (negatively chargedparticles that attract and hold on to water) Perichondrium: outer layer of cartilage that houses blood cells and differential cells that can become chondroblastso Embryonic development of cartilage: mesenchymal tissues and cells begin to cluster and clump together which differentiate into chondroblasts which secrete matrix and begin to space outo Interstitial Growth: growth from within matrix in which chondroblasts divide and push apart through the secretion of more matrix. Only possible in young soft cartilageo Appositional Growth: cells in perichondrium differentiate into chondroblasts which secrete matrix on outer layer of cartilage- Bone: composed of bone cells and non-living matrixo Functions to support, protect, movement facilitation, mineral storage, storage of energyo 2 histologically distinct types of bone:  Compact bone: hard dense outer portion of bone Spongy bone: less dense, spongy, cancellous inner portion of boneo Periosteum: outer vascular fibrous layer of boneo Osteogenesis: process by which bone forms, 2 types Intramembranous: growth from within. Mesenchyme tissues cluster together, differentiate into osteocytes and begin secreting matrix and pushing apart Endochondral: formed from calcification of hyaline cartilage- Influences in bone density, thickness, and sizeo Wolff’s law: if you stress a bone, it will respond by growing thicker/stronger. Bones that go extended periods of time without stress or having to bear weight will become thinner and weaker (outer space, cast, bed ridden)o Growth in length at epiphyseal plateso Repair of fractureso Growth hormone: most important mechanism in post-natal growth (through indirect effects) Dwarfism: too little GH during childhood or lack of GH receptors Gigantism: excess production of GH in childhood before closure of epiphyseal plates Acromegaly: condition caused by excess GH after epiphyseal plates have closedLecture 5: Growth hormone, osteoporosis, and bone fracturesGrowth Hormones: - Estrogen and Testosterone: stimulate synthesis of macromolecules (amino acids into proteins, muscle growth)- Insulin: stimulates protein synthesis- Thyroid Hormone: enhances effect of GH, needed for nervous system to developBones’ role in Calcium ion levels- Plasma calcium ion concentration is precisely regulated as calcium is vital in several body functions such as blood clotting, exocytosis, muscle contraction, and the excitabilityof neurons- To regulate this concentration the body can release parathyroid hormone or calcitonino Parathyroid hormone (PTH): activates osteoclasts causing calcium and phosphate ions to be released into the blood (lowers bone density, increases calcium ion concentration in blood)o Calcitonin: has opposite effect of PTH (increases bone density, decreases calciumion concentration blood)Bone/Nutritional Ailments- Scurvy: vitamin c deficiency over long period of time, weakened epiphyseal


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