PSYC 410 1st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Chapters 1-3Chapter 1 Learning – acquiring knowledge – doesn’t have to be conscious, is said to be relatively permanent, and refers to observed change in behaviorOrigins of learning:- Nativism: does not depend on experience, is innate- Rationalism: does not depend on experience, uses logic and reasoning to problem solve- Empiricism: does depend on experience, environment helps us learn cause and effectWays to measure learning:- Physiological reports (heart rate), behavior (verbal reports - facts, affective changes – attitude, overt behaviors) Learning vs. cognitionLearning is unconsciously acquiring knowledge, and isn’t always correlated one to one with performance *learning curveCognition is consciously recalling/retaining knowledge (*think of it as a memory)Keppel’s Study: When tested immediately, massed practice performs better than distributed. Over time, it occurs oppositely. Memory is retention over time.Approaches to studying learning and memory:Functional approach: based on the idea that people and animals adapt to their environment and studies how learning and memory aid survivalBehavioral approach: Focuses on the observable, examines associations between stimuli and behaviorCognitive approach: (think: information processing in a computer) assumes knowledge is represented in the mind – still measured through behaviorNeuroscience approach: Determines biological basis for learning and memory and is usually combined with other approachesResearch and EthicsTypes of research:Observational studies: studies in which you only observe behavior – looking, for example, at risk-taking behaviorsCase studies: observing/studying one or few individualsCorrelational studies: Looking for a relationship between two variables – correlation does not equal causation- Can be positive or negative, represented by r, ranging from -1 to 1- Small: .1 to .3 (or -.1 to -.3), medium: .3 to .5 (or -.3 to -.5), large: .5 to 1 (or -.5 to 1)- Third variable problem: the idea that there could be a third variable influencing the observed correlation that is influencing the dataExperiments: how we measure cause and effect- Independent variable: what is manipulated- Dependent variable: what is measured- Between-subjects design: giving the drug and placebo to different groups, then measuring results- Within-subject design: assess, provide treatment/intervention, reassessInstitutional Review Board: Ensures participants receive informed consent, are compensated for their time, and have minimized riskChapter 2Habituation: a simple way of learning, repeated exposures to a stimulus results in less reaction from an organism (response decreased due to repeated stimuli) – eventually we stop respondingOrienting response: a behavioral reaction to a changed, new, or abrupt stimulant, AKA orientingreflexPriming: increased sensitivity to a certain stimuli due to prior experience (Tide example, Progressive ad)Methods of studying habituation (different in both):Humans: skin conductance (SCR), eye fixationsAnimals: novelty recognition tasksFeatures of habituation: A function of the number of times a stimulus occurs - *Spontaneous recovery can occur with habituation – when the original response spontaneously occurs again- Time matters- Dishabituation can occur – introducing a new, but similar stimulus that dishabituates the normal response- Can generalize to other stimuliExplanations of habituation:Non-learning theories – sensory adaptation and response or effecter fatigue – can be tested, for example, with similar foul smells to test difference in responses (sensory adaptation), or with a horn to see if there is a response present (effecter fatigue)Neuroscience theories – dual process theory (the overall behavioral response to repetitive stimulation depends on the balance between two factors: habituation and sensitization (increased responsiveness to a repeated stimulus – cat with laser pointer) - In dual process, chemicals stop activation in habituation, and they allow activation to continue in sensitizationCognitive theories - Repeated presentations of a stimulus create a representation in memory – can occur in short-term and/or long-term memory (thinking of, specifically, a golden retriever when hearing the word “dog”) – this theory does depend on expectationHabituation aids learning…Perceptual learning: improvement in distinguishing stimuli as a result of repeated exposure (differences in dog breeds example)- Visual, olfactory, tactile, taste, auditoryFactors affecting perceptual learning: - Available contrasts- It is better to learn easier material before difficult- Feedback is not necessary- Attention is sometimes helpfulSide effects of habituation: - People prefer familiar stimuli (Chinese character example in class)- Priming facilitation: showing people stimuli ahead of time makes it easier for them to remember laterApplications of habituation:- People prefer the familiar – mere exposure: the more we see something, the more we like it- Attractiveness – thinking someone or something is more attractive after being exposed to it time and time again- Diversity training – works if there is a positive outcome afterwards- Food aversions/preferences – introducing food at a younger age makes a person less picky, multiple tastings are required (especially for adults)- Advertising- Rankings- Exposure therapies for phobias Chapter 3Classical conditioning: the presentation of two or more events that occur close in time to one another- A change in responding to one of those events is an indication of whether an association has been learned between them – can be described on behavioral, cognitive,and neural levelsFeatures of classical conditioning: Unconditioned stimulus (US): what has natural significance to you before anything happensUnconditioned response (UR): how you respond to that thing without any trainingConditioned stimulus (CS): the neutral stimulus that requires learning; what you pair the UR withConditioned response (CR): response when pairing the CS & USAppropriate CS:Exteroceptive stimuli: involves cues from outside an organism (lights, smells, sounds, etc.)Interoceptive stimuli: stimulates internal organs (feeling that your bladder is full)Contextual stimuli: refers to the place in which conditioning occurs (dentist’s office, for example)Temporal stimuli: refers to the passage of time prior to each US (a pet on a food