6. CongressCongress in the ConstitutionPowers of CongressSlide 4The Electoral SystemCongressional DistrictsUnequal Representation in the SenateCongress and Electoral PoliticsCandidate-Centered versus Party-Centered Electoral PoliticsSlide 10The Advantages of IncumbencyRepresentation versus ResponsibilityWho Serves in Congress?The Basic Problems of Legislative OrganizationOrganizing CongressOrganizing Congress: The Committee SystemsMaking LawsSlide 18Making Laws: Debate and AmendmentSlide 20Slide 21Slide 22Decision Making in CongressPolitical Parties in CongressConstituentsInterest GroupsCongress and ExecutiveCongress and JudiciaryCongress and the PeopleSlide 306. CongressCongress in the Constitution•Congress’s basic structure (product of the Great Compromise)–House of Representatives:•members serve two-year terms•popularly elected in biennial elections•minimum age is 25 years •seats are allocated to states on the basis of population (with each state, regardless of size, having one representative) –Senate:•members serve six-year terms•selected by state legislatures until the 17th Amendment (1913)•one-third of the chamber is elected every two years•minimum age is 30 years •each state, regardless of its population, has two senatorsPowers of Congress•Article I, Section 8–impose taxes–coin and borrow money–regulate interstate and foreign commerce–spend money for the “common defense” and “general welfare” –residual powers: “to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Office thereof”–foreign affairs: declare war, raise and finance an army and navy, and call out state militias “to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions”Powers of Congress•Article II, Section 2–The Senate ratifies treaties and confirms presidential appointments of ambassadors–The Senate approves presidential appointments to the Supreme Court, high-ranking executive branch officials, and “all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein provided for, and which shall be established by Law”The Electoral System•Senators are elected in statewide contests •Representatives are elected from congressional districts•Senate and House candidates are elected by plurality vote–Wins more votes than any other candidate–Majority vote= wins >50% of votes–Supermajority= wins >= 2/3 of votesCongressional Districts•Gerrymandering–Manipulation of the shape of legislative district to benefit a certain incumbent or party–Districts must have equal population–The Supreme Court decision Thornburg v. Gingles (1986) required that legislative district lines be drawn so as not to discriminate, even unintentionally, against racial minoritiesUnequal Representation in the Senate •Every state, regardless of its population, has two senators. –The imbalance means that citizens in more populous states like California with 37 million people are essentially underrepresented in the upper chamber as compared to less populous states like Wyoming with 570,000 residents.•The unequal representation can have political ramifications in terms of party strengthCongress and Electoral Politics•Congress is organized to serve the members’ goals–The number one goal of most members is reelection –Holding his or seat is key to all else a member hopes to accomplish in office•Electoral considerations influence all important aspects of congressional life.Candidate-Centered versus Party-Centered Electoral Politics•Party-centered electoral process: –Legislators represent citizens by championing the policies promised by the party.•Candidate-centered electoral politics:– Legislators have greater incentive to be individually responsive than collectively responsible.•Modern Democratic majorities coincided with candidate-centered politics•The Republican resurgence is credited to party-centered politics•Party-centered campaigning came back in full force in 1994Candidate-Centered versus Party-Centered Electoral Politics•Up to 19th century, party-line voting was common•Changes in election laws and within parties encouraged ticket-splitting= voting for candidates of different parties for different offices–weakened political partiesThe Advantages of Incumbency•Incumbents broadened their appeal by emphasizing their character, legislative performance, and constituency service. •Members increased the allowances for staff, travel, local offices, and communication.•Incumbency advantage is not automatic. Incumbents work hard to maintain their advantage.•The resurgence of political parties has not dampened incumbents’ efforts to stave off potential challengers.•Unexpected events and strong partisan tides can result in members being ousted.Representation versus Responsibility •Logrolling = vote trading–Voting to support a bill in exchange for a promise of future support.–Happens frequently on bills that are of little interest to legislators•Pork barrel projects: Earmarks, which members insert into spending bills or revenue bills, provide special benefits to their respective states, districts, or contributors. –Heavily criticized but <.5% of federal spendingWho Serves in Congress? •Representatives and senators are not “representative” of the people with respect to demographic characteristics. –Most members have college degrees.–37% have law degrees.–A majority are professionals.–A small number have blue-collar backgrounds.–Most have served in lower elected offices.–Women and minorities are underrepresented.•There is a significant difference in the demographic composition of the two congressional parties.The Basic Problems of Legislative Organization •The modern institution is the result of a set of complex rules, procedures, and customs that evolved from the need to address problems pertaining to organization and competing individual and collective needs of members. –The Need for Information: division of labor and specialization–Coordination Problems: dividing work, flow of bills, and scheduling debates and votes–Resolving Conflicts: rules, customs, procedures, coalition-building–Collective Action: committee system gives well-informed members influence over policy–Transaction