PSY 2311st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 8Lecture 1 (August 19)● Science is based off of systematic observation○ Observation --learn by watching the thing you want to learn about○ Systematic -- carefully planned and structured (different from everyday experience)● Selective Attention -- “attentional blindness”, we may not notice everything that is important to know○ special problem in research● Over Confidence Bias -- more faith in our knowledge than it deserves--especially with familiar things● Biased Perception --drawing inferences about ambiguous/ incomplete information○ percieve “what we are looking for” based on past experience○ special problem in research--researchers often know what they wish to see (hypotheses) get limited glimpses of human behavoir○ shows up in cause-effect judgements● Ben Rush○ yellow fever○ started “blood letting”-- draining as much as 85% of a persons blood○ came away thinking it was a cure for yellow fever○ used a lot of biased perception in his notes● Post Hoc Fallacy -- belief that if B follows A, A must cause B○ correlation does not mean causation○ the knowledge that matters most is cause-effect● Structured Observation -- guidelines for how to gain knowledge that is accurate and unbiased○ Technical tools-- equipment, statistics○ Thinking tools-- to avoid bogus beliefs and conclusionsLecture 2 (August 21) ● Research Methods -- guidelines for obtaining accurate, objective information● Research studies require special circumstances for observing--experiments usually do not take place in the flow of everyday life○ they also require careful measurement-- of thing you want to learn about● Research Design -- plan for getting answers to the question, the question asks somethingabout the world● Design depends on the kind of question● Co-occurance -- two events happen together● Kinds of questions/designs that do not address cause/effect○ Goal--describe, measure occurrence○ Descriptive research -- some surveys, naturalistic observation○ no way to predict, do not know why○ Goal--predict, measure co-occurrence○ correlational research --two variables measured as they naturally occur○ covary --change together in predictable ways■ knowing about x, how reliably can you guess about y?● Co- occurance could mean…○ Directionality problem --A changes B or B changes A■ exercise causes people to weigh less of being heavy causes people to exercise less?○ Third Variable problem -- some unmeasurable factor, C, changes both A and B● Questions/designs that do address cause/effect:○ goal--control, measures cause and effect○ Experiments -- the only research design that searches for causes● Tools for finding causes:○ Independent Variable -- a possible cause of change in what people do-- 2 or morelevels (present vs. absent)○ a science of causes requires observing in action○ Dependent Variable -- the behavior whose causes you want to learn about● Things that make experiments special:○ We choose when/how to vary the IV (causes in action)■ we can see the IV affect the DV○ Not all IV’s can be manipulated : wealth, sex, race, psychopathology○ we try to hold all factors constant except for the IV--ONLY the IV can affect the DV○ Experiments are artificial● Prior to seeing any research evidence, I decide to believe that a particular independent variable DOES cause a particular change in the dependent variable. I have adopted a(n) ___________ perspective.○ guilty until proven innocent●If you believe that a certain factor causes a certain effect, but this later turns out to be wrong, you have made a ______ belief error.○ type 1●The reading offers what criticism of "guilty until proven innocent"?○ you would have to believe contradictory things about an independent variable●I believe that a certain factor causes some effect, but that turns out later to be untrue. I have made a _______ belief error.○ type 1●You decide that ingesting mercury (in fish) will not harm your health. In reality, ingesting mercury damages your nervous system. You have made a __________ belief error.○ type 2●I believe that Massage Therapy cures schizophrenia. Research comes along to showthat Massage Therapy cures schizophrenia. I have made a ______ belief error.○ I did not make a belief error●You decide that drinking alcohol kills brain cells. In reality, drinking alcohol does not affect whether brain cells live or die. You have made a __________ belief error.○ type 1●You decide that yelling at your dog stops her from barking. In reality, yelling does not change her barking at all. You have made a __________ belief error.○ type 1●You decide that a positive attitude has no effects on athletic success. In reality, a positive attitude improves athletic success. You have made a __________ belief error.○ type 2●You decide that playing classical music to your baby will make him more intelligent. In reality, playing classical music will not affect his intelligence. You have made a __________ belief error.○ type 1●I believe that taking nature walks improves memory. Research comes along to show that taking nature walks does not improve memory.○ I have made a type 1 belief error●You decide that imbedding subliminal messages in films makes movie-goers buy more food at the concession counter. In reality, subliminal messages do not affect how much food customers buy. You have made a __________ belief error.○ type 1●You decide that having a chiropractor manipulate your child’s spine will reduce his ADHD symptoms. In reality, chiropractic manipulation as no effect on ADHD symptoms. You have made a __________ belief error.○ type 1Lecture 3(August 26)● Science = equal parts technology and thinking● Scientist think “innocent until proven guilty”● For example when AIDS was first discovered and many placed the blame on the Gay communityGuilty InnocentGays guilty of causing AIDS correct Type I belief errorGays Innocent Type II belief error correct● Experiments are “manufactured observations” that are “better than the real world”● We choose to vary the IV○ manipulation○ standardized IV● We (try to) hold all factors constant except for the IV○ only the IV can affect the DV● We make everything observable○ to see “causes in action”● Not an attempt to mimic everyday world● Experiments distinguish between what you