BIOl 1108 1nd EditionFinal Exam Study Guide[The study guide will be organized by tests. What will be included for each test and new information: Learning Objective answers for previous tests & chapter concepts outlined and learning objectives for new information; class notes not included]Test #1Learning Objectives  I. LEVELS OF LEARNING[Lower Levels]1. Remembering – Recognize, list, describe, identify, name, label, select, repeat, know. Can you RECALL the information?2. Understanding – remembering explanations. Interpret exemplify, summarize, paraphrase, associate, explain. Can you EXPLAIN ideas or concepts.[Higher Levels]  Active Learning3. Applying – implement, carry out, use, demonstrate, apply, transfer. Can you USE the new knowledge in another familiar situation?4. Analyzing – compare, attribute, organize, analyze, discriminate, contrast, dissect. Can you DIFFERENTIATE between constituent parts?5. Evaluating – check, critique, judge, assess, justify, evaluate. Can you JUSTIFY a decision or course of action?6. Creating – design, construct, plan, produce, integrate, synthesize, propose, invent. Can you GENERATE a new product, idea, or way of viewing things? II. MEMBRANES & THE IMPORTANCE OF SIZE1. Explain which structures represent cell volume and cell surface area: Cell volume includes all of the inside material such as the fluids and cytoskeleton with allthe organelles. The cell surface is the membrane, which is made of a phospholipid bilayer.2. Compare and contrast the function of cell volume and cell surface area: The volume is the demand and needs all the nutrients and its main function is metabolism, while the surface’s function is to provide enough nutrients for the volume.3. Explain how cell volume and surface area change as cell size increases: The volume increases at a faster rate than surface area so as the cell grows the SA to Vratio decreases and becomes so small that the surface area can no longer provide for thevolume.4. Explain what problem this generates for the supply of the cells with oxygen and nutrients: The cell is no longer able to obtain enough of each to function efficiently. 5. Explain why it is important to look at SA/V ratio rather than at SA or V alone: Multi cellular organisms evolved given the ratio problem by staying small but reproducing a lot. It also determines the actual capacity that the cell can reach. 6. Explain how SA/V ratio changes as cell size increases: The ratio decreases because volume is increasing at a faster rate than the surface area. 7. Explain why cell size is limited: If the cell gets too big, it will no longer be able to obtain the amount of nutrients needed.  III. BREIF HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH, PROKARYOTES & EUKARYOTES1. Explain the RNA world hypothesis: It says that RNA is the precursor to all organisms because of its ability to replicate itself efficiently, hold genetic material, and catalyze chemical reactions. It is also supported because ribosomes, large molecules that assemble proteins, are ribozymes or capable ofacting like an enzyme. 2. List the timeline (in mya) of evolution of prokaryotes, evol. of Eukaryotes, evol. of multicellularity, evol. of plants and animals, transition of plants (+fungi) and animals from water to land: ~3.5 bya Prokaryotes, ~2.2bya Eukaryotes, ~1.5bya Multicellular eukaryotes, ~600-700mya Animals, ~400-500mya Plants, ~500mya Shift from water to land.3. Put in order the major change in oxygen levels, evolution of eukaryotes, evolution ofphotosynthesis, evolution of multicellularity, colonization of land, evolution of tetrapods, evolution of angiosperms, Permian and Cambrian mass extinction, radiationof birds, mammals, insects, origin of primates, origins of genus Homo: ~3.5bya Photosynthesis, ~2.2bya O2 level 1% of today, ~2.1bya Eukaryotes, ~1.5bya Multicellularity, ~750mya O2 levels close to today, ~700mya Cambrian extinction, ~500mya Colonization of land, ~450mya Insects and tetrapods, ~250mya Angiosperms and mammals and Permian extinction, ~65mya Primates, ~2.5mya Genus Homo4. Explain the connection between oxygen levels and evolution of multicellular organisms: As the oxygen levels increased, the evolutionary progression went from first life, first aerobic bacteria, first eukaryotes, multicellularity, exoskeletons, first chordates, first angiosperms respectively. 5. Explain why the evolution of multicellularity led to an adaptive radiation and great diversity of multicellular organisms: By the endosymbiont theory, multiple unicellular organisms came together to form the first eukaryotes for better nutrients and more efficient function. After the multiple mass extinctions, the simple eukaryote survivors were forced to evolve into many new species to fill vacant ecological roles through adaptive radiation. This progression happened instages after each of the extinctions and eventually ended with the most complex/efficient eukaryotes surviving. 6. Explain one of our current attempts to organize biological diversity (the 3 domains &the four kingdom system of eukaryotes): The phylogenetic trees are used to more easily represent the multiple different classifications of organisms and to show the variety species. 7. Explain the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes: Prokaryotes are unicellular with a cell wall and cell membrane. Bacteria prokaryotes have peptidoglycan in their cell walls, where Archae prokaryotes and eukaryotes do not. Prokaryotes do not have organelles within their cells. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus and have circular chromosomes where eukaryotes have DNA packaging and histones.8. Explain how the two prokaryotic domains differ from one another: Archae have no peptidoglycans in cell walls, they can do RNA synthesis, have DNA packaging, and are extremophiles. Bacteria have peptidoglycans in cell walls, have ester bonds in the cell membrane, only one RNA polymerase, and react differently to antibiotics.9. Identify and explain the relevance of different prokaryote examples for (a) human health, (b) human food production, (c) the atmosphere: (a) Some beneficial prokaryotes for human health are Streptomyces which are the source of antibiotics, chlamydia trachomatis which is an STD, and staphylococcus aureus which causes infection and pneumonia. (b) Most cheeses are made from prokaryotes in the Lactococci or Streptococci families. Rhizobium forms a mutualism with Legumes to help in crop production. (c) Oscillatoria and Anabaena are