BIO 110 1nd EditionExam # 4 Study Guide Chapters 16, 17, 18, 20Chapter 161. What four key traits appear in nearly all land plants?i. Alternation of generationsii. Walled spores produced in sporangiaiii. Multicellular gametangiaiv. Apical meristems2. What is the alternation of generations?- A reproductive cycle where plants alternate between two multicellular stages3. What does sporophyte produce?- It produces haploid spores by meiosis4. How are nutrients transferred from parent to embryo?- Through placental transfer cells5. Why are land plants called embryophytes?- Because of the dependency of the embryo on the parent6. What is female and male gametangia called?- The female is called archegonia and the male is called antheridia7. Where do plants sustain continual growth?- In their apical meristems8. What are nonvascular plants called?- Bryophytes 9. What is a seed?- An embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat10. What two clades can seedless vascular plants be divided into?i. Lycophytes (club mosses and their relatives)ii. Pterophytes (ferns and their relatives)11. What two clades can seed containing vascular plant be divided into?i. Gymnosperms (the “naked seed” plants)ii. Angiosperms (flowering plants)12. Bryophytes are categorized into three kinds of small herbaceous (non woody) plants. What are they?i. Liverwortsii. Hornwortsiii. Mosses13. What is the importance of moss?- It can retain nitrogen in soil, form deposits of peat which is a useful energy source, and is helpful in preserving corpses14. What are living vascular plants characterized by?i. Life cycles with dominant sporophytesii. Vascular tissues called xylem and phloemiii. Well-developed roots and leaves15. What two types of vascular tissue do vascular plants have?i. Xylem (conducts most of the water and minerals)ii. Phloem (consists of living cells and distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products)Chapter 171. What is cleavage and what does it lead to?- A process where after a sperm fertilizes an egg, the zygote undergoes rapid mitotic divisions with no significant growth- Cleavage leads to a formation of a blastula2. What is gastrulation and what does it lead to?- When cells migrate to the interior of blastula- Gastrulation leads to the formation of gastrula3. What is a larva?- Sexually immature and morphologically distinct from the adult; eventually undergoes metamorphosis4. What is metamorphosis?- Process by which an animal physically develops after birth or hatching, involving a relatively abrupt change in animals body structure5. What are sponges?- Sedentary animals that live in both fresh and marine waters; lack tissues and organs; most are hermaphrodites6. What are rotifers?- Tiny animals that inhabit fresh water, ocean, and damp soil7. How do rotifers reproduce?- By parthenogenesis (asexual reproduction) in which females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs8. What is incomplete metamorphosis?- The young (nymphs) resemble adults but are smaller and lack adult features suchas wing and genitalia Chapter 181. What is ecology?- Scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the environment2. What are the types of ecology and what are their focal points?i. Organismal: studies how organisms structure, physiology, and behavior meet environmental challengesii. Population: focuses on factors affecting how many individuals of a species live in an areaiii. Community: deals with array of interacting species in a communityiv. Ecosystem: emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic componentsv. Landscape: deals with array of ecosystems and how they are arranged in a geographic regionvi. Global: examines influence of energy and materials on organisms across the biosphere3. What two factors determine distribution?- Biotic (living factors) and abiotic (nonliving factors)4. What is dispersal?- Movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or from their area of origin. Dispersal contributes to global distribution of organismsChapter 20 part one 1. What is a biological community?- An assembly of populations of various species living close enough for potential interaction2. What are some examples of interspecific interactions?- Competition, predation, herbivory, and symbiosis (parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism)3. What is interspecific competition and what can it lead to?- Occurs when species compete for a resource in short supply. Strong competition can lead to competitive exclusion4. What is predation?- Interaction where one species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey5. What are some examples of behavioral defenses?- Hiding, fleeing, forming herds or schools, self-defense, alarm calls, and some morphological and physiological defense adaptions6. What is herbivory?- Refers to an interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or algae7. What is symbiosis?- Relationship where to or more species live in direct and intimate contact with one another8. What are the three types of symbiosis?i. Mutualism: interspecific interaction that benefits both speciesii. Commensalism: one species benefits and the other is apparently unaffectediii. Parasitism: one organism, the parasite, derives nourishment from another organism, its host, which is harmed in the process9. What is the difference between species diversity and trophic structure?- Species diversity is the variety of organisms that make up the community. Trophic structure is the feeding relationship between organisms in a community10. What is the difference between energetic hypothesis and dynamic stability hypothesis?- Energetic hypothesis suggests that length is limited by inefficient energy transfer. Dynamic stability hypothesis proposes that long food chains are less stable than short ones.11. What are the four kinds of species and what do they entail?i. Dominant: most abundant or have highest biomassii. Invasive: introduced to a new environment by humans, often lack predators or diseaseiii. Keystone: exert strong control on a community by their ecological roles, or nichesiv. Foundation: cause physical changes in environment that affect community structure12. What is the bottom up model and the top down model?- The bottom up model proposes a unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. The top down model proposes that control comes from the trophic level above13. What does the intermediate disturbance hypothesis suggest?- That