EXSC 223 9th EditionFinal Exam Study GuideChapter 1*Function is dependent on structure, and structure determines function.*Anatomy – the structure of body parts and their relationship to one anotherPhysiology – the function of the living systemsHomeostasis – a dynamic state of equilibrium which maintains a relatively constant internal environment-Accomplished by negative feedback (restoring balance) and positive feedback (magnification of original stimulus)Chapter 2Catalyst – a substance which lowers activation energy, increases the rate of reaction, and is not consumed in the reactionEnzyme – a biological catalyst consisting of two parts: an apoenzyme and a cofactorAcid – a compound which donates an H+ ion to another compound (a base) The more H+ ions, the lower (more acidic) the pH.Base – a compound which accepts an H+ ion The fewer H+ ions, the higher (more basic) the pH.Buffer – a mixture of pH compounds that resist pH changes (convert strong acids/bases into weak ones). Example: carbonic acid (H2CO3)Chapter 3Fluid mosaic model – the plasma membrane is a very thin structure composed of a double layer of lipid molecules with protein molecules dispersed in it.a) Phospholipid bilayerb) Cholesterolc) Glycolipidsd) Integral membrane proteinse) Peripheral membrane proteinsf) GlycocalyxPassive transport – substances cross cell membrane without energy input from the cell1) Diffusion - movement of a solute from an area of high solute concentration to low soluteconcentration down a concentration gradiento Simple diffusion vs. facilitated diffusion2) Osmosis – movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentrationActive transport – metabolic energy needed from cell to move substances across the membrane1) Primary vs. secondaryi. Example of primary is Na-K Pump2) Vesicular transporti. Endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis)ii. Transcytosisiii. ExocytosisTonicity - is the ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells by altering their internalwater volume-Isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonicMembrane Junctions1) Tight junction – impermeable junction that encircles the cell2) Desmosome – anchoring junction scattered along the sides of cells3) Gap junction – a nexus that allows chemical substances to pass between cellsCell-to-cell communication - the way a cell interacts with the environment-Receptor mediated 2nd messenger systemImportant cellular structures/organelles:1) Mitochondria2) Endoplasmic Reticulum (rough and smooth)3) Golgi Apparatus4) The Nucleus5) CentriolesCells build and remodel by DNA replication:a) Transcription – an RNA copy of DNA is madeb) RNA processing – segments of RNA (introns) are cut outc) Translation – conversion of mRNA to a proteinNucleosome – the fundamental DNA packing unitHistone proteins – bind DNA and wrap into chromosomesProteolysis – degradation of soluble cytosolic proteinsUbiquitin proteasome pathway – selective protein demolitionThe Cell Cycle1) Interphase – the period when a cell carries out normal metabolic activity and grows2) Prophase – DNA condenses into chromosomes, microtubules form and attach to centromeres, nuclear envelope disintegrates3) Metaphase – chromosomes lined up in center of cell, pushed by microtubules4) Anaphase – chromosome pairs separate and are pulled to opposite ends of cell5) Telophase – nuclear envelope reforms around separated chromosomesChapter 4Classification of Epithelia-By cell shape: squamous, cuboidal, and columnar-By layering: simple (single layer) and stratified (2 or more layers)1) Simple Squamous2) Simple Cuboidal3) Simple Columnar4) Pseudostratified Columnar5) Stratified Squamous6) TransitionalSpecialized Epithelium1) Endocrine glands – ductless glands that secrete hormones inside the body2) Exocrine glands – secrete through ducts onto body surfaces or cavitiesConnective Tissue-Ground Substance – cell adhesion proteins, proteoglycans, interstitial fluid-Fibers – collagen, elastic, reticular-Cells – fibroblast, chondroblast, osteoblast, hematopoietic stem cell1) Connective Tissue Propera. Loose areolar, adipose, loose reticular, dense regular, dense irregular, elastic2) Cartilagea. Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage3) Bone4) BloodChapter 6Classifying bones by shape: long, short, flat, and irregularCompact bone – dense, hard, smooth-Made of osteons, the structural unit of bone-Lamella, central canal, volkmann’s canalsSpongy bone – hard, but consists of struts and columns with air spaces called trabeculae; your red bone marrow exists here-Made up of trabeculae-Found in short, irregular, and flat bones-always encased in compact boneLong bones consist of 1 diaphysis (middle region) and 2 epiphyses (end regions). Short bones only have 1 epiphysis.Ossification = osteogenesis and refers to bone formation by osteoblastsa) Embryo – formation of bony skeletonb) Up to adulthood – bone growthc) Adult – bone remodelingBone Formation1) Intramembranous ossification – the process by which flat bones in the embryo are formed2) Endochondral ossification – uses a hyaline cartilage template, which is broken down as bone is formed from ossification centersEpiphyseal plate – located adjacent to bone shaft and is where growth of diaphysis comes from; disappears when growth is done, and its remnants are marked in adults by the epiphyseal lineBone remodeling – bone reacts to the stresses placed on it.1) Hormonal regulationa. increased blood Ca, increased uptake of Ca by bones (calcitonin inhibits release of PTH, thus stimulating Ca deposit)b. decreased blood Ca, resorption occurs to release Ca into bloodstream (PTH inhibits osteoblasts and stimulates osteoclasts, which break down bone)2) Mechanical stressa. Wolff’s Law – bones grow or remodel in response to demands placed on themb. The anatomy of a bone reflects the stresses it undergoesChapter 9Skeletal muscle - Striated muscle that arises from mesoderm-Develops from myoblasts that fuse to form myotubes. Myofibers form when myotubes interact with a neuron to form a synapse.Organization – epimysium binds muscle, perimysium binds fasicles, endomysium binds muscle fibers. Muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils, which are made up of myofilaments.Structure – I-band (only thin filaments), A-band (thin and thick filaments), H-zone (only thick filaments), and M-line (at center of H-zone