COMM 301: Empirical Research in CommunicationAnnouncementScience as a way of knowingWays of knowingLow level epistemological methodsWays of knowing: TenacityWay of knowing: IntuitionWays of knowing: AuthorityWays of knowing: ScienceWays of knowing: Science (cont.)Advantage of science over the other methods of knowing?Characteristics of scienceFundamental Scientific ActivitiesEvaluation of TheoryProcedures of the scientific methodA note on causalityA note on causality (cont.)11COMM 301:Empirical Research in Communication Kwan M LeeLect2_122Announcement•Powerpoint viewer downloads (courseweb)•Team projects: flexible 3-5 team members–TAs will assign team members33Science as a way of knowing•Things to know by the end of the lecture–What are the traditional ways of knowing?–What is science as a way of knowing?–How is science superior to other ways of knowing?–What are the characteristics of science?–What are the stages and procedures of the scientific method?44Ways of knowing•So, we have a set of research questions… how do we know the answers to the questions?•Epistemology: the division of philosophy that investigates the nature and origin of knowledge.•Six common forms of human knowledge acquisition and formation55Low level epistemological methods•Tenacity•Intuition•Authority66Ways of knowing: Tenacity•Tenacity–“The way it has always been.”–We accept the answer (knowledge) because it has survived over time.–Little rigor possible in analysis of the knowledge–Examples of knowledge via tenacity:•cultural customs, norms, traditions•foods eaten on particular holidays77Way of knowing: Intuition•Intuition–“It feels right.”–Extra-sensory source, gut feelings, so on–Again, less rigor in the analysis of the knowledge, because it is not readily analyzable88Ways of knowing: Authority•Authority–answers, knowledge gained from a trusted source–burden of analysis is mostly on the credibility of the source99Ways of knowing: Science•Science: the development of knowledge through a combination of rationalism and empiricism. –Mind (logic) + Senses (observation)–Rational empirical method: another name for science•Rationalism–Development of knowledge through the application of the rules of logic•Empiricism–Development and confirmation of knowledge through the observation of events using human senses1010Ways of knowing: Science (cont.)•Rationalism: knowing through logic•deductive logic:–apply general principles to a case to draw conclusions–syllogism•inductive logic:–from specific case, generalize to principles–Basis for hypothesis testing•analogical logic:–from a specific case, apply to another case–Based on similarities between the cases•casual logic :–cause and effect link between events•Three requirements for establishing a causal link (see later)1111Advantage of science over the other methods of knowing? •able to develop new knowledge, find new answers, beyond accepting existing answers, by applying logic•able to verify newly established knowledge by objectively relying on one’s own senses–What is the key difference between “Low level epistemological methods” and “high level epistemological method”? •Develop vs. Accept1212Characteristics of science–Logical•Adherence to the rules of logic–Empirical•Objects/phenomena being investigated should be observable.–Problem oriented•Begins with a problem statement then ends with other problems–Procedure driven•To keep objectivity–Community-Based•Exchange of ideas and procedures–Replicable•This is what a method section is for–Self critiquing•What you do at the end of a study (discussion section)–Evolutionary•Grows day by day–Creative•Revolutionary findings!; beyond the normal application of logic!1313Fundamental Scientific Activities•Theory development–What is theory?•A set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining the phenomena.•Causal statement with boundary conditions•Observation–Observation follows research methods (survey, experiment, content analysis, naturalistic observation, etc.)1414Evaluation of Theory•Clarity•Parsimony•Validity–Is it empirically true?•Testability•Scope–How big is it?•Flexibility–Can it adopt to explain new related observations?•Predictability–What can we predict based on this?•Utility–for explanation, generation of new knowledge, prediction, etc.1515Procedures of the scientific method–Problem development–Methodological design–Data collection–Data analysis–Interpretation of findings, generalizing of principle, developing theories1616A note on causality•Tendency to “prove” causal relationships is very strong in science and in life•Need to consider the criteria for causality–Temporal ordering: cause precedes effect in time–Meaningful correlation: must have a theoretical foundations for observed correlations–No competing hypotheses: correlation cannot be explained by another factors1717A note on causality (cont.)•Exercises in alternative