01.15.10Lecture 3: Cellular building Blocks - ProteinsMolecules in the cell• Most essential molecules of the cell are known• Pathways of synthesis and breakdown are known for most• Chemical energy drives biosynthesis• Organization of molecules in cells:1. Atoms2. Small molecules3. Macromolecules4. Supramolecular aggregatesAtoms• 95% of a cell’s dry weight is C (50%), O(20%), H (10%), N (10%), P (4%), S (1%)• Na, K, Cl, Ca, Fe, Zn are each present at less than 1%.Small molecules (MW = 100 - 1000)• Cells are 70% water, nearly 30% carbon compounds• Molecules are covalently bonded atoms, covalent bonds result from sharing electrons and depend on valence (C: +4, N: -3, O: -2, H:+1)Covalent bonds• Covalent bonds form the backbones of molecules.• Electrons are shared between atoms• Single bonds allow rotation, double bonds are rigidThere are four main classes of small molecules• Amino acids• Subunits of proteins• 20 major types of amino acids• Side groups of amino acids dictate protein structure (non-polar, polar, and charged subgroups)• Nucleotides• Base (adenine, cytosine, thymosine, guanine, Uracil) + sugar + phosphate• Subunits of DNA and RNA• ATP - the main energy sourceThere are four main classes of small moleculesThere are four main classes of small molecules• Sugars• Monosaccharides (I.e. glucose or ribose)• Sugars are subunits of polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, glycogen)There are four main classes of small molecules• Lipids• Fatty acids, triglycerides, steroids, oils, fats, hormonesMacromolecules (MW 1000 - 1,000,000)Consist of subunits linked by covalent bondsMacromolecular assembliesWeak bonds have many important functions in cells• They determine the shape of macromolecules (i.e. the double stranded helical shape of DNA is determined by many weak hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs A-T and G-C)• They produce reversible self-assembly of pre-synthesized subunits into specific structures (i.e. membrane lipid bi-layer, protein "polymers" like microtubules and actin filaments)Weak bonds have many important functions in cells• They determine the specificity of most molecular interactions (i.e. enzyme substrate specificity and catalysis)• Molecules or supramolecular aggregates denature (unfold or fal apart) upon environmental changes which affect the strengths of weak bonds (changes in pH, temperature, or ionic strengthWeak bonds have many important functions in cells• Binding of molecules by multiple weak interactions is often highly specific. Tight binding requires multiple complementary weak interactions and complementary surfacesThere are 4 major types of weak bonds: (see panel 2-7 in textbook)1. Hydrogen bonds2. Hydrophobic interactions3. Ionic bonds4. van der Waals interactionsHydrogen bondsThe interaction of a partially positively charged hydrogen atom in a molecule with unpaired electrons from another atom. May be intermolecular (i.e. water) or intramolecular (i.e. DNA base pairing).Hydrogen bondsHydrophobic interactionsWater forces non-polar (uncharged) surfaces out of solution to maximize hydrogen bondingIonic bonds• Strong attractive forces between + and - charged atoms• Electrons are donated/accepted by atoms rather than shared• Strong in the absence, weak in the presence of water• Weak force produced by fluctuations in electron clouds of atoms that are brought in close proximity.• Individually very weak, but may become important when two macromolecular surfaces are brought close together.van der Waals interactionsProtein structure: proteins are identified by their amino acid sequencesThe 20 amino acids may be categorized in to 4 groups based on their side chainsThe conformation (shape) of a protein is determined by its AA sequence• All 3 types of noncovalent bonds help a protein fold properly• Together, multiple weak bonds cooperate to produce a strong bonding arrangementThe conformation (shape) of a protein is determined by its AA sequence• The polypeptide chain folds in 3-D to maximize weak interactions• Hydrogen bonds play a major role in holding different regions togetherThe conformation (shape) of a protein is determined by its AA sequence• Covalent di-sulphide bonds help stabilize favored protein conformations• Occur on proteins in oxidizing environments (lumen of the secretory pathway, outside the cell)Proteins exhibit a wide variety of shapesProteins exhibit multiple layers of structural complexity Primary => secondary => tertiary => quaternary structures (sequence) (local folding) (long-range) (large assemblies)The primary structure of a protein is its linear arrangement of amino acids- Ala - Glu - Val - Thr - Asp - Pro - Gly -Secondary structures are the core elements of protein architectureSecondary structures are the core elements of protein architectureOverall folding of a polypeptide chain yields its tertiary structureExample: green fluorescent proteinInteractions between multiple polypeptide chains produce quaternary structureProtein domains are modular units from which larger proteins are builtProtein activity may be regulated by multiple mechanisms1. Phosphorylation2. Binding to GTP3. Allosteric regulation4. Feedback inhibitionProtein phosphorylationGTP bindingAllosteric regulationDegradation by
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