A Process of Social Research Social research academic research which uses the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical inspiration To formulate research topics To interpret findings General order a Choose and problem and hypothesis b Formulate research design c Collect data d Coding and data analysis e Interpret results could lead to other questions Elements of the social research process Literature review learn what is already known on the topic Concepts and theories help to define exactly what you are interested in a Grand theories highly abstract difficult to test empirically social world view b Mid range theories intermediate area topic specific focus on specific subject or phenomenon Sampling cases researching Research questions what exactly do you want to know Data collection test out hypothesis Data analysis analyze results Writing up compiling results Research questions force you to consider what it is about your area of interest that you want to know Useful because they guide your whole process Gives readers a clearer sense of what your research is about Stop you from getting off track Writing up research a Introduction outline of research area and significance b Literature review examination of what is already known c Research methods presentation of how sampling was done and how data was collected and analyzed d Results findings e Discussion findings discussed in relation to implications for literature and research question f Conclusion significance of research Literature reviews are important because they help you understand what has gone wrong in past studies surrounding similar area of study Help you form a hypothesis because you can resolve inconsistencies neglected aspects gaps new ideas innovative methods B Research Strategies Theory Theories empirically a Grand theories Inform social leanings highly abstract difficult to test b Mid range theories Area topic specific easier to test in a real world way operate in limited domain Literature as theory Resolves inconsistencies neglected aspects and gaps new ideas Can act as a theory because it informs hypothesis innovative methods Research methods a Inductive research theory b Deductive theory research Qualitative research think of it as quality over quantity Starts with collecting data inductive research Concerned with establishing a new social theory or revising existing theory Data is generally interview or participant observation Small sample sizes generally Quantitative think of it as quantity over quality Starts with theory deductive research Concerned with theory testing Researchers can collect own data or use existing datasets like GSS General Social Survey Large sample sizes generally C Research Design Hypothesis Validity Reliability Research design a structure that guides the execution of a research method and analysis of the data May use multiple different research methods Research methods techniques for gathering data Interviews surveys etc Types of research designs Seen as golden standard 1 Experimental Typically has strong internal validity Not typically the norm in sociology a Manipulation need to manipulate independent variable b Classical experimental design randomized controlled trial c Laboratory experiments limitations on external validity 2 Cross Sectional More than one case Data represents a single point in time Quantifiable data Challenging to determined causality because all data collected at same time 3 Longitudinal Follows a sample of participants through time and collects data at multiple time points Can be qualitative or quantitative a Panel study random sample nationally representative data collection at two or more points in time b Cohort study follows a group of people that share a common characteristic Problems with longitudinal studies a Sample attrition death moving dropout b What time points matter most c Costly and time consuming d Panel conditioning effect participants alter behavior and action 4 Case Studies Researcher is interested in a specific group or community Associated with qualitative research but could use either method Used for extreme unique typical cases Gives very detailed information 5 Comparative Often used in cross cultural research Reliability is measure stable over time Compares two or more contrasting cases using identical methods Can be used in quantitative or qualitative Test retest should be a high correlation between test 1 and test 2 Validity is the measure accurate a Measurement validity does the measure really reflect the concept IQ b measures intelligence Internal validity does a conclusion incorporate a causal relationship between two or more variables c External validity can the results of a study be generalized beyond the d Ecological validity are the findings applicable to people s everyday specific research context natural social settings Hypothesis a proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation If then Positive correlation relationship between two variables where one variable increases the other also increases also when one decreases the other also decreases Negative correlation the value of one variable increases the other decreases D Quantitative Research and Variables Process 1 Theory Look to prior work 2 Hypothesis Build on literature review 3 Choose research design 4 Devise measures of concepts Operationalization Operationalization measuring the concepts we are interested in How you measure your concepts a Nominal variables values have no mathematical interpretation Ex race b Ordinal variables allow for rank or order does not allow for determination of degree of difference between categories Ex strongly agree strongly disagree c Interval ratio variables numeric value measurable distance between values Ex income 5 Select research site If you are collecting own data a Select research subjects b Collect data 6 Enter clean process data 7 Analyze data 8 Draw findings and conclusions 9 Write up research Generalizability concerned with the external validity of research findings Quantitative researchers are concerned that their work can apply to those who did not partake in the survey Want their findings to representative of the population Type of variables Independent variable that has a causal impact on dependent variable a Manipulated variable Dependent variable that is influenced by the independent variable a Measured response to the change of the IV How does exercising affect