Chapter 2 What is Science CPO2002 Exam 1 Study Guide Argument a set of logically connected statements typically in the form of a set of premises and a conclusion Categorical syllogism specific type of argument that consists of a major premise a minor premise and a conclusion Comparative Method the most common method of inductive research Also known as Mill s method involves the systematic search for the necessary and sufficient causes of political phenomena The Comparative method compromises the Method of agreement and the Method of Compromise Mill s methods are empirical methods they tell us what happens but not why the phenomena occurs together Conclusion in an argument is a claim that is thought to be supported by premises Critical Test allows analysts to use observation to distinguish between two or more competing explanations of the same phenomenon Deductive Approach to Learning formulates an expectation about what we ought to observe in light of a particular theory about the world and then set out to see if our observations are consistent with our theory Falsifiable scientists statements must be falsifiable this means that they are potentially testable there must be some imaginable observation that could falsify or refute them Falsificationism approach to science in which scientists generate testable hypotheses from theories designed to explain the phenomena of interest it emphasizes that scientific theories are constantly called into question and their merit lies only in how well they stand up to rigorous testing Inductive Approach to Learning starts with a set of observations and then tries to ascertain a pattern in the observation that can be used to generate an explanation for the observation Invalid Argument when we accept the premises of an argument but we are free to accept or reject its conclusions the argument is invalid Method of Agreement compares cases that agree in regard to political Method of Difference compares cases that disagree in regard to the phenomena to be explained outcome explained Necessary Condition circumstance in whose absence in the phenomena in question cannot occur Example Oxygen cause is a necessary condition for fire effect Y NEVER HAPPENS UNLESS X HAPPENS If Y then X or If no Y then no X Premise statement that is presumed to be true within the context of an argument leading to a conclusion Scientific Method describes the process by which scientists learn about the world Sufficient Condition is a circumstance in whose presence the phenomenon in question must occur example Jumping cause is the sufficient condition for leaving the ground effect Y always happens if X happens if X then Y If no Y then no X Tautology a statement that is true by definition Theory set of logically consistent statements that tells us why the things we observe occur Uniformity of Nature asserts that nature s operating mechanisms are unchanging in the sense that if X causes Y today then it will also cause Y tomorrow and the next day and so on Valid Argument an argument is valid when accepting its premises compels us to accept its conclusions Logic Valid and Invalid Arguments 1 Major Premise If a country has a strong economy the government will be popular Minor Premise the government is not popular Conclusion Therefore the country does not have a strong economy a Is this a Valid or Invalid argument Valid b What form of categorical syllogism is this Denying the Consequent our case is not in Q therefore it cant be in P 2 Major Premise If the president commits a criminal act then he can be impeached Minor Premise The president does not commit a criminal act Conclusion Therefore the president cannot be impeached a Is this a Valid or Invalid Argument Invalid b What form of categorical syllogism is this Denying the Antecedent just because it is not in P doesn t mean it is not in Q 3 Major Premise If a country employs proportional representation electoral rules it will have many parties Minor Premise The country does not employ proportional representation electoral rules Conclusion Therefore the country does not have many parties a Valid or Invalid Invalid Q P b What form of categorical syllogism is this Denying the Antecedent just because it is not in P doesn t mean it is not in Q 4 Major Premise If theory T is correct all rich countries will be democracies Minor Premise All rich countries are democracies Conclusion Therefore theory T is correct a Valid or Invalid Invalid b What form of Categorical syllogism is this Affirming the consequent just because our case is in Q does not mean it is also in P c If you wanted to demonstrate that theory T is wrong what would you have to observe We would have to deny the consequent and would have to observe a country that is a wealthy dictatorship Scientific Statements 5 All mainstream U S Senators agree that the House bill is unacceptable 6 All good students get high grades a b a b Is this statement scientific if mainstream is defined in terms of the acceptability of the House bill NO Is this statement scientific if mainstream is defined in terms of the ideology of the senators YES Is this statement scientific if good is defined in terms of a student s grade NO Is this statement scientific if good is determined in terms of a student s enthusiasm YES Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 7 8 If a person contracts measles then she was exposed to the measles virus Necessary Condition if you have effect then you will also have the condition you can t have effect without condition If a democracy is rich then it will stay a democracy Sufficient Condition if you have the condition then you will also have the effect you can have condition without effect 9 A country cannot maintain a democratic form of government unless it has a culture that promotes civic participation Necessary Condition can t have effect without condition 10 Countries have many parties only when they employ proportional electoral rules Necessary Condition if you have effect only happens when condition happens if you have the effect then you will also have the condition 11 Countries always have few parties when they employ majoritarian electoral rules Sufficient Condition effect always happens when condition happens Chapter 3 What is politics Backward Induction process of reasoning backward from the end of a game or situation to the beginning in order to determine an optimal course of action Branches represent the actions that can be taken at choice nodes Choice Node a point
View Full Document
Unlocking...