Study Guide for Exam 3 chapters 14 18 Fertility mortality fertility patterns Fertility Over the last 200 years the average of babies born to American women has decreased from 7 to 2 births Reason for decline in 18ths century women had as many kids as capable but now kids have changes from being economic assets to being liabilities Why have fertility patterns changed o Macro level factors 1 Improvements in contraceptive methods can space pregnancies and delay motherhood 2 More opportunities in higher education chose other roles besides wife and mom 3 Advances in medicine and hygiene no need to have large families to compensate for child deaths 4 Economic changes more women have entered paid labor force postponing marriage motherhood having fewer childbearing years Choices about sexual frequency contraception abortion Example relative income earning potential compared with desired standard of living factor in parenthood choices o Micro level o Combination o Other notes Socioeconomic status women in lower classes have more kids Educational level is most closely related to fertility racial ethnic differences religion o US has highest rate of infant mortality for any high income country in the world Mortality rate babies who die in first year compared to total of babies born o Leading cause of infant mortality are physical defects preterm birth and low birth rate 1 of the leading factors is that the US does not have free health care for everyone Mortality Socialization of children changing conceptions of children and childhood Colonial Views o Kids believed to be evil by nature born in sin o Spontaneity seen as rebelliousness o Strict authoritarian upbringing of kids o Childhood ends at age 6 7 o Age 10 often apprenticed to others avoidance of teenage rebellions 19th century o child born in total innocence o child came from bosom of G d and had angelic qualities o kids must be protected from the evils of the world o concept of adolescence starts to become popular storm and stress 1904 Varied experiences for children always diversity o Major difference for African American kids lived in poverty prohibited by law from attending school learning to read write Realization that they were slaves with constant threat of being sold o Working class and immigrant kids Excluded from idealized belief in childhood forced to believe they were inferior due to poverty foreign origins Entire family needed to work Still true in global economy o Late 19th early 20th century working class and immigrant kids Middle class reformers attacked poor Claimed they were introducing anti american values as child labor That their moms worked outside of home was perceived negatively o Wage increases led to laws prohibiting exploitation of kids o Opportunities for schooling increased domesticity and motherhood more important role for women o Role of psychoanalysis perpetuating the myth that only bond Is Reform to labor laws between mother and child Contemporary concepts of children o Economic changes led to interest in education for kids o New concept special preparation necessary before individuals could assume their place as adult Children now treated as special Contemporary issue child labor o Globalization cheap labor o Over a billion individuals are adolescents currently Transition to parenthood Considered as 1 of the most significant life transitions Many people in US don t consider a person or a couple of a family until they have kids Rearrangement of roles trelgationships and statuses o Reorganization of money o Marital adjustments decision making o Reallocation of time and space o New relationships with relatives and friends Transition can be more difficult than into other roles because o 1 Cultural pressure encourages adults to become parents even if they don t want to permanent commitment o 2 Little preparation for parenting in addition overly read parents may over parent o 3 Transition is abrupt 24 hour duty time biggest problem o 4 Necessitates changes in couples relationship o 5 No clear guidelines about what constitutes good parenting Effects o 70 90 have marital bliss dips during first year of parenthood o negative effects higher divorce rates o some think having baby will bring them closer but often drives them apart o marital stability presence of preschool children reduces risk of family breakdown from 20 to 5 8 Parenting and social class o Low SES families often struggle with poverty unemployment violence and crowded living conditions but although challenged these parents generally raise happy healthy kids Pregnancy draws couple together when planned o Not just the mom Fathers important for emotional development of the baby enhances maturity for the dad Social construction of motherhood fatherhood how these concepts have changed over time Motherhood o 19th century emerging industrial system low fertility and small family size domesticity and motherhood as the natural roles for women psychoanalysis emphasized mother child relationship where only biological mom could provide emotional satisfaction for a child o 20th century idealized model of motherhood white middle class American responsibility for mothering rests exclusively on biological mother corollary view kids require constant care and attention from one caretaker the biological mom corollary view fathers need to become involved in similar fashion historical experiences shapes concepts of mothering women of color in US excluded from cult of Fatherhood kinship social connection domesticity o 1940 1965 father as sex role model during urbanization and immigration heightened critique of mothers o developmental psych too much mothering inadequate fathering led to insecurity to male identity o 1970s good provider role began to change women s movement women s entrance into workforce recession necessitated 2 incomes call for expressivity and nurturance by men Work and family issues including breadwinner fathers traditional arrangements work family stress working mothers Gender role convergence evidence of shift towards gender convergence an every increasing similarity in how men and women live and what they want from their lives convergence in labor force participation o mens rate of labor force participation shows downward trend o combination of upward trend for women employment and downward trend in mens low income groups with economic stress job insecurity fewer signs of convergence Amount of time spent by working parents today on kids vs in past