CHAPTER 14 INDIVIDUAL PERSPECTIVES 1 Do not predict negotiation processes and outcomes as well as situations do 2 Stable individual differences are generally not under the individual negotiator s control Sex refers to the biological categories of male and female determined by reproductive organs NA TURE Gender cultural and psychological makers of the sexes the aspects of role or identity that differen tiate men from women in a given culture or society NURTURE 1 Gender is the term preferred because it is socialized differences not biological 2 Women behave more cooperatively in negotiation than men 3 Men tend to negotiate better outcomes than women Situation Matters given certain circumstances gender differences emerge in other circum stances they are elusive THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES 1 Relational views of others 2 Embedded View of Agency i Place a greater emphasis on interpersonal aspects a Women are more aware of the complete relationship in negotiating b Men are driven by more task specific goals a Women tend to not draw strict boundaries between negotiating and relationships see b Men define the boundaries of the negotiating marking the beginning and end of a ne negotiating as a behavior that occurs within relationships gotiation 3 Beliefs about Ability and Worth the negotiation table a An individual s expectations and perceived self worth affect how he or she approaches b Women sometimes undermine their ability to achieve good outcomes a Women seek empowerment with enhancing everyone s power b Men seek empowerment over to achieve their own goals or forcing the other party to 4 Control through Empowerment their point of view 5 Problem Solving through Dialogue a Women seek to engage the other in a joint exploration of ideas whereby understand b Men who use dialogue ing is progressively clarified through interaction listen and contribute i ii to convince the other party their position is correct to support various tactics and ploys to win points in negotiating 6 Perceptions and Stereotypes a Men have the advantage as a dominant cultural stereotype b Women sometimes have negative stereotypes that can shape expectations EMPERICAL FINDINGS on GENDER DIFFERENCES in NEGOTIATION 1 Men and Women Conceive of Negotiations in Different Ways a How Conflict Is Framed Relationship versus Task Orientation tual and Compromise vs Win Women Relationship and Men Task i Dimensions to interpret conflict Relationship vs Task Emotional vs Intellec ii No differences between 2nd and 3rd perceptions on conflict i ii b How Conflict Is Framed Competition versus Collaboration In Competitive negotiations women tend to be pressured into their social roles as cooperative and see lesser outcomes than men In Collaborative negotiations when the pressures are lifted women tend to thrive Is the Situation Perceived as a Negotiation Opportunity c i Significant differences in Propensity to Negotiate The prospect of negotiating may inhibit women from initiating negotiation more so than the differently framed prospect of asking ate ii Men on average negotiate twice as much and 8 times the propensity to negoti d Outcome Expectations i Women expect lower outcomes from a negotiation ii In high ambiguity situations men will have better outcomes than women 2 Men and Women Communicate Differently in Negotiation on the gender of the other party who is the perceiver of the behavior rather than men a Women perceived male behavior as more assertive than men did b Same behaviors may elicit significantly different perceptions and reactions depending c Aggressive and Competitive tactics are viewed differently when employed by women d Society promotes competition among males yet discourages it among females e Men and women discuss different things in negotiations positions male vs feelings women f Differences depending on the communication channel in use for negotiation women tend to be more hostile in virtual negotiations emails than in face to face negotia tions i Virtual negotiation are less salient because of fewer status and social cues g Surveillance who is watching the negotiators negotiate tends to change behaviors in small effects 3 Men and Women Are Treated Differently in Negotiation a Automobile Negotiations i Offers received from the car dealerships differed significantly depending on the negotiators gender and race mostly due to differences in the opening offers by salesperson and negotiator ii The gender and race of the salesperson had no effect on the results iii Women and African Americans may start negotiations at a less favorable posi tion than white males b Salary Negotiations i Different degrees of willingness to even try to obtain a better salary ii Even when both men and women do initiate negotiations over salaries there is iii Emerge from differences in how negotiators define bargaining zones evidence that women fare worse 4 Similar Tactics Have Different Effects When Used by Men Versus Women differently a Biggest difference is how the same behaviors used by men and women are PERCEIVED i Exchange tactics reminding supervisors of previous favors and offering to make sacrifices had a positive effect on salary negotiations for men and a negative effect for women May violate stereotypical expectations about appropriate fe male behavior therefore penalized ii Aggressive tactics Women were 3 5 times less likely to be hired when using ag gressive tactics women were punished more severely than men when using the same tactics 5 Gender Stereotypes Affect Negotiator Performance gories who fear that their performance will confirm a negative stereotype a Stereotype Threat performance anxiety that afflicts individuals in certain social cate b Stereotypes Undermine the Performance of Female Negotiators negative stereotypes while men face positive stereotypes i Activation of stereotype threat can effect negotiations because women face c The Negative Effect of Stereotypes about Gender Differences Can Be Overcome i After explicitly mentioning that masculine traits lead to better performance d The Activated Stereotype May Matter More than the Actual Gender of the Negotiator women actually outperformed men in mixed gender negotiations i When male stereotypes were activated more distributive outcomes were ii When female stereotypes were activated more integrative outcomes were reached reached OVERCOMING THE DISADVANTAGE OF GENDER DIFFERENCES 1 Motivational Interventions emphasize mutual dependency of both parties reframe to solve