FATHERS OF BIOLOGYBYCHARLES McRAE, M.A., F.L.S.FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORDPERCIVAL & CO.KING STREET, COVENT GARDENLondon1890Transcriber's Note:Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Archaic andvariant spellings remain as originally printed. Greek text appears as originallyprinted, but with a mouse-hover transliteration, Βιβλος.PREFACE.It is hoped that the account given, in the following pages, of the lives of five great naturalists may not be found devoid ofinterest. The work of each one of them marked a definite advance in the science of Biology.There is often among students of anatomy and physiology a tendency to imagine that the facts with which they are nowbeing made familiar have all been established by recent observation and experiment. But even the slight knowledge ofthe history of Biology, which may be obtained from a perusal of this little book, will show that, so far from such being thecase, this branch of science is of venerable antiquity. And, further, if in the place of this misconception a desire isaroused in the reader for a fuller acquaintance with the writings of the early anatomists the chief aim of the author willhave been fulfilled.CONTENTS.PAGEHIPPOCRATES 1ARISTOTLE 19GALEN 45VESALIUS 63HARVEY 83HIPPOCRATES.HIPPOCRATES.Owing to the lapse of centuries, very little is known with certainty of the life of Hippocrates, who was called withaffectionate veneration by his successors "the divine old man," and who has been justly known to posterity as "theFather of Medicine."He was probably born about 470 b.c., and, according to all accounts, appears to have reached the advanced age ofninety years or more. He must, therefore, have lived during a period of Greek history which was characterized by greatintellectual activity; for he had, as his contemporaries, Pericles the famous statesman; the poets Æschylus, Sophocles,Euripides, Aristophanes, and Pindar; the philosopher Socrates, with his disciples Xenophon and Plato; the historiansHerodotus and Thucydides; and Phidias the unrivalled sculptor.In the island of Cos, where he was born, stood one of the most celebrated of the temples of Æsculapius, and in thistemple—because he was descended from the Asclepiadæ—Hippocrates inherited from his forefathers an importantposition. Among the Asclepiads the habit of physical observation, and even manual training in dissection, were impartedtraditionally from father to son from the earliest years, thus serving as a preparation for medical practice when there wereno written treatises to study.[1]Although Hippocrates at first studied medicine under his father, he had afterwards for his teachers Gorgias andDemocritus, both of classic fame, and Herodicus, who is known as the first person who applied gymnastic exercises tothe cure of diseases.The Asclepions, or temples of health, were erected in various parts of Greece as receptacles for invalids, who were inthe habit of resorting to them to seek the assistance of the god. These temples were mostly situated in theneighbourhood of medicinal springs, and each devotee at his entrance was made to undergo a regular course of bathingand purification. Probably his diet was also carefully attended to, and at the same time his imagination was worked uponby music and religious ceremonies. On his departure, the restored patient usually showed his gratitude by presenting tothe temple votive tablets setting forth the circumstances of his peculiar case. The value of these to men about to enter onmedical studies can be readily understood; and it was to such treasures of recorded observations—collected duringseveral generations—that Hippocrates had access from the commencement of his career.Owing to the peculiar constitution of the Asclepions, medical and priestly pursuits had, before the time of Hippocrates,become combined; and, consequently, although rational means were to a certain extent applied to the cure of diseases,the more common practice was to resort chiefly to superstitious modes of working upon the imagination. It is notsurprising, therefore, to find that every sickness, especially epidemics and plagues, were attributed to the anger of someoffended god, and that penance and supplications often took the place of personal and domestic cleanliness, fresh air,and light.It was Hippocrates who emancipated medicine from the thraldom of superstition, and in this way wrested the practice ofhis art from the monopoly of the priests. In his treatise on "The Sacred Disease" (possibly epilepsy), he discusses thecontroverted question whether or not this disease was an infliction from the gods; and he decidedly maintains that thereis no such a thing as a sacred disease, for all diseases arise from natural causes, and no one can be ascribed to thegods more than another. He points out that it is simply because this disease is unlike other diseases that men have cometo regard its cause as divine, and yet it is not really more wonderful than the paroxysms of fevers and many otherdiseases not thought sacred. He exposes the cunning of the impostors who pretend to cure men by purifications andspells; "who give themselves out as being excessively religious, and as knowing more than other people;" and he arguesthat "whoever is able, by purifications and conjurings, to drive away such an affection, will be able, by other practices, toexcite it, and, according to this view, its divine nature is entirely done away with." "Neither, truly," he continues, "do Icount it a worthy opinion to hold that the body of a man is polluted by the divinity, the most impure by the most holy; for,were it defiled, or did it suffer from any other thing, it would be like to be purified and sanctified rather than polluted bythe divinity." As an additional argument against the cause being divine, he adduces the fact that this disease ishereditary, like other diseases, and that it attacks persons of a peculiar temperament, namely, the phlegmatic, but not thebilious; and "yet if it were really more divine than the others," he justly adds, "it ought to befall all alike."Again, speaking of a disease common among the Scythians, Hippocrates remarks that the people attributed it to a god,but that "to me it appears that such affections are