Midterm Study Guide-History of SciencePrescience, Greeks, and Romans(1)What early people knew (what we would call mathematics/astronomy/ medicine), how they knew it what they used it for and how they passed it on:-Driving force in early science was survival, curiosity, and religion; early science grew from Mesopotamia and Egypt-Prehistoric people developed technologies to obtain necessities for life-Oral tradition was used to pass on what seemed to be important knowledge until writing is invented• Mathematics:-Decimal numbers were used in building the pyramids (inclined surface)-Egyptians wrote on papyrus-Mesopotamians developed the sexagesimal number system, which was used in algebra and astronomy• Medicine:-Egyptians used surgical tools for treatment of wounds, fractures, or dislocations and had pharmacology (ritual traditions)-Believed disease was caused by an evil spirit in the body-Mesopotamians did similar healings and also thought disease was spiritual or due to sin, carelessness or sorcery• Astronomy:-Mesopotamians were first real observers of heavens and calculated the path of Venus, passed on by tablets-Babylonian divination-predicting events from Gods by looking for signs in the stars-Calendar based off the moon*Both helped shape and benefit Greek Philosophy (2) Why written records were critical for knowledge development:-The invention of writing was a prerequisite for the development of philosophy and science. Written records allowed the education of wider groups of people and also allowed information to be evaluated. Oral tradition allowed information to become skewed and unreliable; it also could not be inspected or compared to anything like written works could.(3) The new approach of the early Greek thinkers (known as Pre-Socratics) and how it differed from the explanations based on myth. What kinds of questions did they ask? What did they think the Kosmos was made of and why?-In this group of philosophers (Aristotle called them Physikoi), the Gods disappearedfrom their explanations of the universe. They stopped personifying nature such as myths often did.-They asked: What was the universe made of? What was its shape/size? How does it change and operate?-Thales attempted to explain natural phenomena without reference to mythology and was tremendously influential in this respect. He said that the fundamental thing making up the Kosmos and all things was material (for him specifically-water)-Heraclitus said the world itself consists of a law-like interchange of elements, symbolized by fire. Thus the world is not to be identified with any particular substance, but rather with an ongoing process governed by a law of change.-Leucippus said everything made up of small parts or atoms, and they make change possible.-Aneximes concluded that everything in the world is composed of air (4) Aristotle-Who was he and what he thought about:-Born in Stagira and attended Plato’s academy but criticized him and philosophers before him. Taught Alexander the Great and opened lyceum in Athens and had a personal library.-His theology-purposefulness in the universe.-Everything has a cause and meaning-doesn’t explain on how reality came into being-Everything made with four causes: Form-Formal Cause (shape-what it is), Matter-Material Cause (ingredients-what its made of), Agency-Efficient Cause (who make its), and Purpose-Final Cause (what’s its purpose).(a) the Kosmos-Rejected the theory of the form (cosmology)-universe is eternal (never ends, never began)-was a sphere, full with no void space-Earth in the center-change on Earth but nowhere else-prime mover (not like traditional God) moves spheres-if universe is in constant motion unmoved mover is the stable efficient cause(b) Elements composing the earth-system-Aristotle’s elements were: fire, air, water, and earth-Earth in center, then water, air and fire in successive order-Their shells/spheres occupy small portion of the universe-heavens around spherical Earth (aether)(c) Why objects were where they were-Objects were where they were because it is that object’s rightful place.There can be an external force acting on that object, but it will always move toward its rightful place in the universe.(d) The subjects that composed meteorology-Phenomena of the upper atmosphere, including comets, shooting stars, rain, the rainbow, thunder and lightening were covered in Aristotle’s book Meteorology. Earth-air-water-fire along with hot-cold-wet-dry made many elements including those of meteorology.(5) Roman approach to science – same as Greeks? Why or why not? What was occupying the Romans?-Greek Philosophy continued into the Roman Empire as the foundation of education. Alexander the Great from the Italian peninsula started taking over Greek land around 330 CE.-Differed in that philosophy became a leisure activity compared to in Greece-In Greece, knowledge flourished after the creation of the alphabet and writing-Romans studied the philosophy and only used what was logical from the Greeks-the circle of Roman and Greek scholars could not go beyond Aristotle-Aristotle’s Philosophy grew to be foundation of science until 15th century-Works translated from Greek to Latin-Varro identified arts but not sciences: Grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, medicine, and law-Main figure of Polarization period-Pliney (Natural History)-Romans were occupied with economic decline from war-lead to decrease in education and literacy-also spread of Christian religion occupied time and attention-presenting serious obstacles in scientific development in Rome-the Church gained power by appealing to the poor and uneducated(6) How did the early Christians view pagan learning? How did they adapt to it?-Christians turned to education when they wanted their followers to be able to read the Holy Bible. However, most of education was based off of Greek philosophy-course determined from Aristotelian philosophy.-Some Christians regarded Greek philosophy with error and some believed it was the complete opposite.-Without the development of monasteries for education, Western Europe would most likely have less science.-Ultimately, the Church tried to work with Science-viewed it as a ‘handmaiden’-could help explain their basis for education (Christianity)- Pagan= anything that disagreed with Christianity (Polytheistic). Christians did not care however, Christians took philosophy and only used theories that would