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HUN 3224 Test 1 Study Guide Carbohydrates Digestion and Absorption 1. Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars) – simplest form of carbohydrates, C6H12O6 a. Glucose – Most abundant, blood sugar b. Fructose c. Galactose 2. Disaccharides – formed by condensation of 2 Monosaccharides, digestion occurs in upper small intestine a. Maltose = glucose + glucose b. Sucrose = glucose + fructose c. Lactose = glucose + galactose 3. Oligosaccharides – 3-10 monosaccharide chain, linked by alpha(1-4) bonds and beta(1-4) bonds 4. Polysaccharides – 10 to 500,000+ monosaccharide chain a. Starch – storage form of CHO in plants b. Types: i. Amylose – Glucose linked by a(1-4) bonds, and is linear ii. Amylopecin 1. Branched chain polymer 2. Linked by: a. a(1-4) long straight chains b. a(1-6) branches 5. Glycogen – storage form of CHO in animals (liver and muscles) 6. Fiber – non-digestible Carbohydrates (plant polysaccharides) a. Dietary Fiber – found intact and intrinsic in plants b. Functional Fiber – isolated, extracted or manufactured c. Soluble Fiber – dissolves in water and increases digestive transit time d. Insoluble Fiber – doesn’t dissolve in water, decrease digestive transit time and increases fecal bulke. Fermented in Colon (large intestine): produces hydrogen gas, methane and CO2 and promotes good bacteria 7. Digestion a. Mouth i. Salivary Amylase – produced by salivary glands 1. digests a(1-4) bonds 2. NOT a(1-6)bonds, disaccharides or oligosaccharides 3. HCL in stomach inactivates salivary amylase b. Small Intestine – comes in from stomach as Chyme i. Pancreatic Secretions – regulates pH ii. Pancreatic amylase- digests starch c. Brush Border Enzymes (microvilli) – Digestion Complete i. Sucrase – digests Sucrose ii. Lactase – digests Lactose iii. Maltase – digests Maltose iv. Isomaltase – digests Dextrins into glucose + glucose 8. Absoprtion a. Glucose and Galactose i. Active Transport – requires energy ii. SGLT1 – transports Glucose and Na+ into cell iii. Utlizies the Na+/K+ pump to bring glucose/galactose into the cell iv. Enterocyte (intestinal absorption cell) → Capillaries → Hepatic Portal System → Liver b. Fructose i. Facilitated diffusion by GLUT 5 (type of glucose transporter) ii. Some is converted to glucose in enterocyte iii. Transported to the liverGlycolysis, Krebs, HMP shunt 1. Glycolysis – oxidation of glucose and energy production in cytosol -Degraded into pyruvate, a triose a. Anaerobic – without oxygen i. glucose → pyruvate → lactate ii. Net ATP = 2 ATP (from 2 ATP) b. Aerobic – with oxygen i. glucose → pyruvate → acetyl CoA → (Krebs Cycle) ii. Net ATP = 14 ATP (from 4NADH and 2 ATP, 1NADH=3ATP)c. Rate Limiting Steps – step in enzyme reaction that requires greatest energy i. Step 1 - Hexokinase = Glucose → Glucose 6 Phosphate, (requires ATP) ii. Step 3 – Phosphofructokinase = Fructose 6-Phosphate → Fructose 1,6 bis-Phosphate, (requires ATP→ADP) iii. Step 10 – Pyruvate Kinase = Phosphoenolpyruvate → pyruvate ( ADP → ATP) 2. Krebs Cycle / Tr carboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA) / Citric Acid Cycle a. Amphibolic Pathway (both anabolic and catabolic) – CHO, proteins and fats all enter and become oxidized into CO2, H2O and energy b. Location: Mitochondria Matrix c. Energy Production: (NADH = 3ATP, FADH = 2ATP, GTP = 1ATP) i. Acetyl CoA = 3 NADH, 2 FADH, 1 GTP = 12 ATP total ii. Pyruvate = 4 NADH, 2FADH, 1 GTP = 15 ATP total iii. Glucose produces 2 Acetyl CoA molecules, so it cycles twice in the Krebs Cycle 3. Total Energy produced from 1 Glucose 4. Pentose Phosphate Pathway (HMP Shunt) – In the Cytosol: generate NADPH and pentoses for the biosynthesis of fatty acids and nucleic acids.Electron Transport Chain 1. Electron Transport Chain – production of mitochondrial ATP a. Oxidative Phosphorylation – supplies energy from CHO, Fatty acids and Amino acids i. Oxidation – NADH → NAD + 2H ii. Phosphorylation – ADP + P → ATP b. Proton Pumps – builds an electrostatic gradient across the membrane (H+) i. Complex I - NADH dehydrogenase complex ii. Complex III - Cytochrome B-C complex iii. Complex IV - Cytochrome oxidase complex c. Electron Transporter – transports electrons between complexes i. Ubiquinone (complex II) –transports electrons between complex I and III ii. Cytochrome C –transports electrons between complex III and IV d. ATP Synthase – Complex V - transports protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane for phosphorylation of ADP to ATP (ADP + P → ATP) e. Video about Electron Transport Chain (Check it out!): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbJ0nbzt5Kw2. Why NADH produces 3 ATP and FADH2 produces 2 ATP: - NADH feeds its electrons into the electron transport chain at the beginning (Complex I). FADH2 feeds into the electron transport chain at Complex II (at a lower energy level down the chain). The high energy electrons from NADH have sufficient energy to result in 3 ATP whereas the lower energy electrons in FADH2 have only energy for 2 ATP. The donated electrons are passed along the electron transport chain from high energy level to low energy level (O2 is the final acceptor) via Complexes I - IV. As the energy is given up protons (H+) are pumped from the matrix of the mitochondria into the space between the inner and outer membranes of the mitochondria., thus establishing a H+ concentration gradient. The H+ then diffuse back through the ATP synthase 3. Thyroid Hormone – uncouples proteins/oxidative phosphorylation and halts ATP Synthase a. Hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone)– inefficient ETC, increased BMR, weight loss b. Hypothyroidism (not enough thyroid hormone) – decreased BMR, weight gain Gluconeogenesis 1. Gluconeogenesis – Make glucose from non-carbohydrate sources in the cytosol (liver, sometimes kidney) -Not exactly the reverse of Glycolysis due to non-reversible steps a. Beginning Products (non-carbohydrate sources): Pyruvate, Krebs Intermediates, Amino Acids b. End Products: Glucose 2. Non-reversible steps – (Steps 1,3, & 10 of Glycolysis) – Non-reversible because it requires ATP a. Acetyl CoA → Pyruvate = NOT possible b. Pyruvate → phosphoenol pyruvate = Not possible c. Bypass by formation of Oxaloacetate which can be phosphorylated to phosphoenol pyruvate 3. Why Gluconeogenesis?? a. Makes Glucose when CHO is not available b. Brain


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FSU HUN 3224 - Test 1 Study Guide

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