Learning experience A relatively permanent change in an organism s behavior as a result of Learning Process of Association Response and consequence operant conditioning Others response and consequence observational learning Two stimuli classical conditioning Pavlov s Experiments Physiological studies of digestive process Why did the dogs begin to salivate before food was placed in their mouths Process of Classical Conditioning Before conditioning UCS UCR Neutral stimulus Process of Classical Conditioning During and After Neutral stimulus UCS UCR CS CR Conditioning Principles UCS Extinction CR weakens without pairing Spontaneous recovery Reappearance of CR after rest period Generalization CR triggered by similar stimuli Discrimination No CR to dissimilar stimuli Acquisition temporal contiquity CS presented 5 secs before Learning The Role of Cognitive ProcessesFor many animals cognitive appraisals important for learning First 2 events must occur in close temporal contiguity Then animals learn to predict the 2nd based on the 1st cue What is learned is the expectation of a UCS Each species has a set of biological Learning The Role is Biological Constraints predispositions Rats learn association between food and illness Rats fail to learn association between sounds and illness Humans also learn taste aversions Predators have been conditioned to avoid prey Applications of Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning may underlie some cravings Ex smokers cravings bars other smokers morning cup of coffee Aversive conditioning Antabuse Drug abuse Watson Little Albert Phobias see image Learning Systematic Desensitization Components Anxiety hierarchy Relaxation training Process of counterconditioning Treatment for common phobias Nature of Operant Conditioning followed by a consequence Classical conditioning respondent involuntary behavior Operant conditioning operant behavior that actively operates on the environment to produce a consequence A voluntary response becomes reliably emitted when Operant Conditioning Role of consequences rewarded behavior likely to recur behavior that is not reworded likely to drop out Shaping reward approximations ignore other responses Thorndike s Law of Effect Operant Conditioning Reinforcers Reinforcer any event that increases the frequency of a response Positive pleasant stimulus Negative removing unpleasant stimulus Primary innately satisfying Secondary learned Taking aspirin to relieve a headache Examples of Negative Reinforcement Leaving a theater if the movie is bad Smoking to relieve anxiety Saying uncle to stop a fight Feigning a stomach ache to avoid going to school Begging Nagging Continuous reinforcement Reinforcement Schedules Partial reinforcement schedules Fixed ratio set number of responses i e hourly wage Variable ratio unpredictable number of responses i e gambling Fixed interval time interval after reinforcer i e salary Variable interval varying time intervals independent of behavior Fixed ratio set number of responses every nth behavior Variable ratio unpredictable number of responses behaviors Fixed interval time interval after reinforcer every nth period of time Variable interval time varying time intervals independent of behavior unpredictable length of Reinforcement Schedules Broken Down RATIO INTERVAL behavior time FIXED VARIABLE regular unpredictable Examples of Reinforcement Schedule Types ratio Getting an allowance every Saturday fixed ratio Earning 5 for every lawn mowed fixed ratio Playing slot machine variable ratio Checking email variable ratio Getting 10 points extra credit for each essay written fixed ratio Calling mechanic to see if car s fixed yet variable interval Batter gets a hit every 3rd time at bat variable ratio Buying lottery ticket and winning variable Effects of Punishment on Behavior punishment temporarily decreases behavior in presence of punisher undesirable side effects of punishment fear of punisher and increased aggression negative reinforcement increases frequency of behavior Applications of Operant Conditioning computer assisted instruction token economy i e chore list with stickers behavior modification Process of Observational Learning Observant conditioning assumes all behavior performed before reinforcement observational learning can be vicarious modeling imitation direct vicarious reinforcement children who observe aggressive model more likely to imitate Bandura s Bobo Doll Study behavior especially if rewarded importance of model s consequences modeled behavior learned reinforcement or expectation central in learning Application Media Influences researches investigate the role of TV on behavior these data typical findings for antisocial behavior similar effects for prosocial behavior Process Memory Process and System encoding storage retrieval System sensory memory short term working memory long term memory Information Processing Model see notes Processing External events sensory input sensory memory Unconscious sensory memory encoding working short term memory encoding long term memory short term memory retrieval Encoding Processes Automatic occurs without awareness doesn t interfere with thoughts Effortful Processing requires attention and effort strategies facilitate encoding Rehearsal spacing effect indicate distributed practice beneficial conscious repetition aids retention Serial Position Effect information from a list not equally recalled Primacy effect ex recalling Presidents Recency effect How Information is Encoded Encoding Meaning Imagery Organization Chunks Hierarchies Chunks SSN area codes Hierarchies botanical groups Storage Sensory Memory and Short Term Memory inconic memory visual stimuli echoic memory auditory stimuli information retained 3 4 seconds Short term Memory Sensory Memory capacity limited 7 2 bits 5 9 less than 20 30 seconds in duration Short Term Memory Decay see Table Long Term Memory Physiological Basis experience leads to increased activities in neural pathways neurotransmitters serotonin released during leaining long term potentiation synapses become more efficient at transmitting information Stress hormones implicated in formation of flash bulb memories Memory Subsystems Long term memory Explicit Processed in hippocampus facts general knowledge personally experienced events declarative Memory Subsystems Long term memory Implicit processed by other brain areas including cerebellum motor and cognitive skills classical and operant conditioning effects nondeclarative