Geography 2051 Final Exam Study Guide Summer 2013 Four spheres of physical geography 1 Lithosphere o Refers to the solid earth portions mountains beaches valleys sand dunes o Geomorphology geomorphologists 2 Hydrosphere o Refers to the water portions moisture in air clouds oceans rivers o Water resources hydrologists 3 Atmosphere that makes life possible o Climatology climatologists 4 Biosphere o The relatively thin envelope of gases that surround the earth o The living organisms and non living surroundings o Biogeography biogeographists System set of objects and their attributes that are linked together by flows of matter and energy ex objects like planets are linked together by gravity 2 types of systems o Open System matter and energy are free to enter and leave Ex ecosystem solar system earth All natural systems are open o Closed System matter and energy can t enter or leave Can t persist over a long time because energy is escaping Self contained Ex battery powered watch Cannot have a true closed system THE EARTH IS NOT A CLOSED SYSTEM Budget Law of Conservation Energy and matter cannot be created or destroyed budget energy matter can t be destroyed Inputs outputs change in storage Inputs o Feed into our system o Add energy or matter into storage o If inputs are great than outputs the storage will increase o Negative when outputs are more than inputs the storage decreases Outputs o Carry matter and or energy out of the system o Subtract from storage o Inputs storage outputs 3 different budget types Positive budget storage increases o Inputs outputs Negative budget storage decreases o Inputs outputs o Over the long term we cant have either positive or negative budgets neither are indefinite cannot persist because will eventually run out Balanced budget equilibrium storage constant o Inputs outputs o The amount in storage remains constant overtime 2 types of equilibrium Static equilibrium o Unchanging stationary fixed o Constant input into system and system adjusts to have constant output both input and output are constant o The sun is a constant source of energy and also changes throughout the day Dynamic equilibrium active changing o Changing inputs and outputs o Inputs are constantly varied which causes storage and outputs to constantly vary o Turning water pressure higher and lower over and over which makes the input output and storage levels change o Very common in natural systems o Constant adjustment to achieve balance o Lag Period lag time lag interval The difference in time between some change in system inputs or environmental conditions and the systems response to it o Important characteristic to how systems operate o ex river system Latitude aka Parallels o Reference point is the very center of the earth equator 0 latitude o Measure the angle that is made from the point to the center of the earth to the equator o Run E W but give position N S of equator o Range from 0 at equator 90 at N S poles 90N 90S are the furthest away o Parallels are talking about the 49 latitude Longitude aka Meridians o Reference point is center of earth o Reference line is on the prime meridian 0 o Prime Meridian runs through Greenwich England o Run N S but give location E W of Prime Meridian reference point o Values for Longitude run 0 180 E W of Prime Meridian Earth s Internal Structures composed by layers three major layers Core responsible for generating out magnetic field o Inner Core composed of metals solid irons and nickel temperature is very hot remain solid density is high Extremely hot several thousand degrees Celsius Material is mainly metals iron nickel Material is actually solid despite the temperature because the pressure is so intense that molecules are packed so tightly that they can t melt Materials are extremely dense 13 g cm3 Solid iron highest temps and density o Outer Core composed primarily of metals fundamental difference is that its liquid rather than solid cooler temperatures lower pressure and density Temperatures are still very hot but cooler than inner layer Materials are also less dense Still primarily metals mostly iron but the outer core can enter the liquid stage so we find iron molten Molten iron lower temps and density Mantle o Densities and temperatures are decreasing o 80 of earth s volume o Uppermost Mantle Layer of rigid solid rock that floats on top of the Aesthenosphere o Aesthenosphere Essentially plastic molten rock it can flow and bend o Crust welded together with uppermost mantle make up what is called the lithosphere and float in the Asthenosphere Welded to the uppermost Mantle o Continental Crust Crust that forms the continents Less dense Granite 2 7g cm3 Tends to be thicker o Oceanic Crust Materials that form the ocean More dense than continental crust Basalt 3g cm3 The Rock Cycle o Rocks are altered and changed converted back and forth from different types o Magma Igneous rock Weathering Sediments Clasts Lithification Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphosis Metamorphic Rocks Magma molten rock forms rock through the process of cooling called Igneous Rock Igneous Rocks o First major class of rocks o rock that forms to the result of magma cooling could get exposed on surface rain sun Weathering breaks a rock down into smaller bits and pieces called sediments happen o rock is exposed to surface and a whole bunch a process can o Water and vegetation start to break down the rock Sedimentary Rock if rock continues to get buried pressure increases and generates heat rock can chemically change which creates o Second class of rocks Metamorphic Rocks o Third class of rocks o Pieces of atoms are exchanged and produce Metamorphic o Marble is a common metamorphic rock o Can still be weathered and broken down into sediments and rocks clasts Metamorphosis o the processes of heating and changing of rock o As the layers get thicker and the pressure gets stronger its starts to generate heat and the rocks undergo changes at the molecular level Types of Rocks Sedimentary Rocks o Form through lithification o Compaction squeezing materials together o Cementation binding the particles together with cement o 3 Categories of Sedimentary Rocks Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Formed when particles of other rocks lithify and Classified by grain size size of the clast that compact together forms the rock Sand 2mm 0 0625 mm sandstone Silt 0 0625mm 0 002mm siltstone Clay 0 002mm smallest claystone shale Conglomerate mixture of large and small grain size material including pebbles or