CarbohydratesFunctionsMain source of energy for cellsSpare proteinAdd bulk to foodsProvide energy, fiberSources: grains, fruits, dairy productsSimple carbohydrates: SugarsMolecule with 6 carbon atoms and oxygen and hydrogenComplex carbohydrates: Starches and fiberSometimes called polysaccharidesLong chains of sugar unitsCommon dietary carbohydrate sourcesRice, wheat, maize, potato, apple, oranges, grapes, cane, beet, honey, corn syrup, milkPoly-stratch, starchDi- Maltose Sucrose Sucrose LactoseMono- Glucose Fructose GalactoseGlucose Glucose GlucoseMonosaccharidesSix carbon moleculesGlucose- the body’s predominant fuelFructose- fruit sugarGalactose- one of the two components of the milk sugar lactoseDisaccharidesSucroseA combination of glucose and fructoseLactoseA combination of glucose and galactoseMaltoseA combination of glucose and glucosePolysaccharidesGlycogenAnimal starch—configured in long chains of glucose moleculesThe body’s storage form of carbohydrateStarch from plant sourcesFiberPlant material—long chains of glucose molecules whose structure is resistant to enzymatic degradationCellulose, hemicellulose, and pectinLower Cholesterol and Heart RiskA. High-fiber dietLiver uses blood cholesterol to make bilegallbladder stores bileIntestine: bile aids digestions, binds to fiberA little cholesterol in bile reabsorbed into the blood or fiber and bile excreted in fecesB. Low-fiber dietLiver uses blood cholesterol to make bileGallbladder stores bileIntestine: bile aids digestionMuch of the cholesterol in bile reabsorbed into the blood or little bile excretedHow Carbohydrates in Food Becomes Glucose in the BodyFiber, starch, and sugars enter small intestinePancreatic amylase breaks down starch to disaccharidesEnzymes on intestine wall break down di- to mono- saccharidesMonosaccharides enter capillary—go to liverLiver converts galactose and fructose to glucoseFiber travels through unchanged to colonLactose IntoleranceDeficiency in the enzyme lactaseSymptoms include nausea, diarrhea, and gasEffects 80% of world populationCan be induced in remainder of population by infectionUndigested lactose becomes fuel for intestinal bacteria that in turn produce gas and irritantsInfants and small children have the enzyme lactase so they can digest mothers’ milkDuring childhood, lactase begins to disappear in many peopleSome ethnic groups are more likely to develop lactose intolerance; by adolescence, it is gone in about 75% of African-Americans, Jews, Native Americans, Mexicans, and in 90% of AsiansRegulation of Blood GlucoseAfter a meal, blood glucose risesPromotes an increase in insulin releaseInsulin promotes glycogen formationIn liver and muscleAfter a while, glucose levels fallPromoting glucagon releaseGlucagon stimulates glycogen conversion to glucose from liverGlucose MetabolismGlucose enters the cell and is first divided into two three-carbon fragments and energyThe three-carbon fragments, called pyruvate, enter the mitochondria and are reduced to 2-carbon units called acetyl-coAThis process is done anaerobically and yields CO2 as well as 2 units of ATPThe acetyl-coA then enters the Krebs Cycle and electron transport chain, which yields 32 ATP, CO2, and waterGlycogen Metabolism1/3 of all glycogen is stored in the liverThe other 2/3 is stored in musclesEach glycogen molecule has many branches that stick outGlucagon stimulates the breakdown of liver glycogen to glucose which can then enter the bloodstreamEpinephrine stimulates the breakdown of muscle glycogen to glucose which can be used to produce ATP in the musclesNutrient Conversion to FatExcess carbohydrate intake is converted to fat in the liverAfter repleting glycogen storesAnd after restoring normal blood glucoseExcess protein and fat also can result in fat depositionThe liver releases these fatty acids into the bloodFat cells (adipocytes) take up these fatty acids and store themInadequate Carbohydrates in the DietWhen there is an inadequate carbohydrate in the diet, the body has two problems:Having no glucose, the body turns to protein and fat to make some glucoseWithout carbohydrate in the diet, fat cannot be used correctly for energy, and the body converts its fats into ketone bodiesKetosis results when an undesirable high concentration of ketone bodies accumulate in the bloodMinimum amount set by the DRI committee is 130 grams a day for an average-sized personDiabetesType 1—IDDMCharacterized by an immune response to pancreatic B cellsEventually the pancreas stops making insulinOften starts early in lifeType 2—NIDDMCharacterized by insulin resistance—the insulin is there, but it does not work to foster glucose uptake by the cellsOccurs later in lifeBlood Glucose ValuesNormal: 100 mg/dLPrediabetes: 100-125 mg/dLDiabetes: 125 mg/dLComplications of DiabetesBlindnessKidney diseaseHeart diseaseNerve damageIncreased infectionsAmputations of limbsAlternative SweetenersNaturally occurring sweeteners:Corn syrup (high fructose)MolassesLevulose (fructose or fruit sugar)HoneySugar alcoholsHigh Fructose Corn SyrupUsed by body like any other sugarNo evidence that it is preferentially stored as fatConcern is the amount of added sugars in our diet, high fructose corn syrup or “corn sugar” is just one of these added sugars (used by food industry because it is inexpensive)High Fructose Corn Syrup and the EnvironmentCorn is grown as monoculture, which depletes soil of nutrients, requires higher amounts of pesticides and fertilizerProcessing corn into high fructose corn syrup is energy intensiveScaling back on consumption of high fructose corn syrup is good for you and good for the environmentFunctions of LipidsNatures way of condensing energy storesAlso insulates/protects organsSource of calories (9kcal/gram)Flavor and tenderness of foodSlows stomach emptying—more satiatingSource of essential fatty acidsTypes of LipidsTriglyceridesPhospholipidsSterolsPhospholipidsGlycerol + two fatty acids + phosphorousPhosphorus part makes it soluble in waterFatty acids make it soluble in fatTherefore can serve as an emulsifierKey role is in cells membranesSterolsLarge molecules consisting of interconnected rings of carbon atoms with side chains of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen attachedCholesterolFound in all animal cell membranesNonessentialForms plaques that cause antherosclerosisCholesterol serves as the raw material forBileVitamin DSteroid hormones including the sex hormonesTriglyceridesMain form of fat in foodMade
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