Cytokinesis – separates 2 daughter nuclei into 2 cellsBegins in late anaphase and ends in telophasePhragromoplast – vesicles, micotubules, and ER accumulates across center of dividing cellCell plate – forms in the middle of cell, cell wall between 2 cellsPlants vs. AnimalsIn animals, cell cleavageIn plants, cell plate forms = new cell wallPurpose of Mitosis – duplicate cellular plan in order to maintain constant # of chromosomes for each species; daughter cells are diploid; following cell division, cell must contain the same # of chromosomes as the parent cell & same # of genesMeiosis – process in sexual cycle by which the chromosome # is reduced by half; contributes to genetic variability during sexual reproductionGametes – haploid reproductive cells that fuse to form a fertilized egg (sperm and egg)Zygote – fertilized egg8 stages – Meiosis I and Meiosis IIMeiosis I:Prophase I – synapsis, pairing of homologous chromosomes; nuclear membrane disappearsMetaphase I – homologous chromosomes line up in pairs in equator & spindle fiber attach to centromeres of the chromosomesAnaphase I – separation of homologous chromosomesTelophase I – chromosomes arrive @ spindle, nuclear envelope reforms, each cell has 1 homologous chromosome, cytokinesis occurs to split cellsCROSSING OVER: During Prophase I, crossing over occurs; the exchange of genetic material between chromoatids of homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of meiosisMeiosis IIProphase II – chromosomes shorten/thicken, nuclear membrane disappearsMetaphase II – chromosomes line up on equator, spindle fibers attach to centromeresAnaphase II – centromeres divide, sister chromatids separate & become chromosomesTelophase II – nuclear envelope forms around each set, nucleolus appears in each nucleus, chromosomes lengthen and become indistinctCytokinesis occurs forming 4 cells!Results4 cells with n# of chromosomes (gametes)2 pairs randomly assorted homologous chromosomesscrambled infoall 4 gametes have complete haploid info, but each has diff. scrambled info derived from homologous chromosomesSee comparing Mitosis w/ Meiosis SlideLECTURE 7 – INTRO TO GENETICSI. GENETICS – branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation of organismsChromosomes carry the hereditary info (genes)DNA  RNA  ProteinsHomologous chromosomes – chromosomes occur in pairsNew combos of genes occurs in sexual reproductionII. Gregor MendelLooked at 7 traits/characteristics of pea plantsPredicted concept of genes and that genes occur in pairsPrinciples:Dominance – one allele masks anotherSegregation – genes become separated in gamete formation; each sex cell receives 1 type of geneRelation to meiosis – correlation between movement of chromosomes in meiosis and segregation of alleles that occurs in meiosisIndependent assortment – members of one gene pair segregate independently from other gene pairs during gamete formationIII. Genetics TermsGene – a unit of heredity, a section of DNA sequence encoding a single proteinGenome – an entire set of genes in an organismAlleles – 2 genes that occupy the same position on homologous chromosomes and that cover the same trait (like “flavors” of a trait)Locus – a fixed location on a strand of DNA where a gene or one of its alleles is locatedHomozygous – having identical genes (one from each parent) for a particular characteristicHeterozygous – 2 diff. genes for a particular characteristicRecessive – does not appear in heterozygous, only in homoGenotype – the genetic makeup of an organismPhenotype – the physical appearance of an organism (genotype + environment)Monohybrid cross – a genetic cross involving a single pair of genes (one trait)Parents differ by single traitP = parental generation; F1= first generation, offspring from a genetic cross; F2= second generation of a genetic crossP = PP x pp; F1 = Pp x Pp; F2 = PP, Pp, Pp, ppIV. Cystic FibrosisCaused by mutant recessive gene carried by 1 in 20 people of European descent1 in 4 children will have it; affects transport in tissues, mucus accumulatesInheritance pattern: if 2 parents carry the recessive gene of CF, they are heterozygous (Cc), 1 in 4 of their kids is expected to be homozygous for cf and have the disease; CC = normal, Cc = carrier w/ no symptoms, cc = has the diseaseV. Dihybrid CrossMatings that involve parents that differ in 2 genesFlower color ( P = purple, p = white) & Stem length (T = tall, t = short)TT PP x tt pp; TP & tpBSCI 124 EXAM #1 LECTURE 1- INTRODUCTION-The Scientific Method1. Observation: based on previous data2. Hypothesis: testable statement/tentative assumption3. Theory: hypothesis that survived tests- explanatory power4. Law: no data found in disagreement-Biology is the scientific study of life!-Living things are…- Highly organized- Maintain stable chemical composition- Take energy from the environment- Respond to stimuli- Grow/develop- Reproduce sexual or asexual- Show variation based on heredity- Evolve/adapt to environment and way of life-What is a plant?o Multi-cellular organismo Cellulose – rich cell wallo Chlorophyll/photosynthesiso Adapted to life on landLECTURE 2 – THE CELLCell Macromolecules: The molecules of life! The cell is made of four biologically important molecules1. Carbohydrates (sugars, starches, cellulose)a. Organic molecules composed of C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio)b. Most abundant of life’s molecules!c. 3 types of carbohydrates…i. Mono-saccharides1. Simple sugars of 3 to 6 carbons2. Glucose (C6H12O6), Fructose, Riboseii. Di-saccharides1. Composed of two monosaccharide’s2. Sucrose (C12H22O11), Maltose (2 glucose), Lactose (Milk)iii. Poly-saccharides1. Long chain of monosaccharide’s2. Starch- energy storage3. Cellulose- plant cell wall (wood, paper, cloth)d. Functions: Energy storage in C-H bonds, structure in plants, carbon source to make other molecules2. Lipids (fats, oils, waxes, steroids, phospholipids)a. Composed of C, O, H atomsb. Fats and oils (insoluble) are made from two building blocks:i. Glycerol moleculeii. Fatty Acidc. Fats are solid lipids at room temperature, oils are liquid lipidsd. Lipids DO NOT dissolve in watere. Phospholipids: similar to fats/oils, but contain phosphorousf. Fatty acid chain/tail is hydrophobic (water hating), Phosphate group makes head hydrophilic (water loving)g. Steroidsi. Composed of 4 carbon ringsii. Structurally differenth. Function of lipids…i. High-energy foodii. Part of cell