Bio 211 Midterm #2 Study GuideVocabulary (1):Mitosis: A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis.Meiosis: A modified type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms consisting of two rounds of cell division but only one round of DNA replication.Interphase: A phase of the cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purpose including preparation for cell division. Prophase: The first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes visible with a light microscope, the mitotic spindle begins to form, and the nucleolus disappears but the nucleus remains intact.Metaphase: The third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attaches to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate.Anaphase: The fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell.Telophase: The fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter nuclei are forming andcytokinesis has typically begun.Cytokinesis: The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II.Chromosome: a cellular structure carrying genetic material, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins. Sister chromatids: Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by proteins at the centromere and, sometimes, along the arms. Centromere: in a duplicated chromosome, the region on each sister chromatid where they are most closely attached to each other by proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences; this close attachment causes a constriction in the condensed chromosome. Haploid: Half of the chromosomes of a parent cellDiploid: All of the chromosomes of a parent cellTetrads: A 4 part structure that forms during the prophase of meiosis and consists of 2 homologous chromos, each with 2 sister chromatids. Homologous chromosomes: A pair of chromosomes of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that posses genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is from mother and the other is from the father.Crossing over: The reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during prophase I of meiosis.Chloroplast: an organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.Mitochondria: an organelle in eukaryotic cells that serves as the site of cellular respiration; uses oxygen to break down organic molecules and synthesize ATP.Nucleus- large membrane-bound, usually spherical protoplasmic structure within a livingcell. Contains cell hereditary material and controlling its metabolism, growth, and reproduction. The central kernel of a nut or seed. Protista- a group with a number of low microscopic organisms of doubtful nature. Clade: a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants. Cladistics: an approach to systematics in which organisms are placed into groups called clades based primarily on common descent. Monophyletic: pertaining to a group of taxa that consist of a common ancestor and all of its descendants. A monophyletic taxon is equivalent to a clade. Polyphyletic: pertaining in a group of taxa derived from two or more different ancestors. Paraphyletic: pertaining to a group of taxa that consists of a common ancestor and some,but not all, of its descendants. Mixotrophic: an organism that is capable of both photosynthesis and heterotrophy. Producer: an organism that produces organic compounds from CO2 by harnessing light energy (in photosynthesis) or by oxidizing inorganic chemicals (in chemosynthetic reactions carried out by some prokaryotes).Phytoplankton- microscopic plants that live in the oceanPhylogenetic tree: a branching diagram that represents a hypothesis about the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.Phylogeny: the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species.Excavata- includes taxa that are photosynthetic, parasitic, symbiotic, and heterotrophic. Diplomonads- group of flagellates, most of which are parasitic. Mitosome- an organelle found in some unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Parabasalids: a protist, such as a trichomonad, with modified mitochondria. Mutualistic Symbiosis- interaction between different species that is mutualy beneficialParasitic Symbiosis- the state of being a parasite. Euglenids: a protist, such as Euglena or its relatives, characterized by an anterior pocket from which one or two flagella emerge.Euglenozoans: member of a diverse clade of flagellated protists that includes predatoryheterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, and pathogenic parasites. Kinetoplastids- group of single-cell flagellate protozoa, including a # of parasites responsible for serious diseases in humans and other animals. Coral bleaching- when corals lose their color. Warm water results in this. Alveolates: a protist with membrane-bounded sacs (alveoli) located just under the plasmamembrane. Alveoli- grape like sacs where gas exchange occurs in the lungsDinoflagellates- unicellular protists that exhibit great diversity of form. Plankton- floating or weakly swimmingApicomplexans: a protist in a clade that includes many species that parasitize animals. Some apicomplexans cause human disease. Apical complex- organ complex. Appears as a conical structurePlasmodium: a single mass of cytoplasm containing many diploid nuclei that forms during the life cycle of some slime molds. Ciliates: a type of protest that moves by means of ciliaConjugation (in ciliates): a sexual process in which two cells exchange haploid micronuclei but do not reproduce. Macronucleus- larger type of nucleus in ciliatesMicronucleus- smaller type of nucleus in ciliatesFlagella: a long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion. Like motile cilia, eukaryotic flagella have a core with nine outer doublet microtubules and two inner single microtubules ensheathed in an extension of the plasma membrane. Cilia- organelle found in eukaryotic cellsMicrotubule: a hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic