5/15 Lecture: The science game and the cycle of scientific progressThe Science Game- 3 non-scientific modes of understanding & their limits1. Experience: what seems to have been true for me in the past?2. Intuition: what feels like the true answer?3. Tradition/ authority: what does my culture believe to be true?- The “Golden Rule” of science: scientific claims bust be testable and able to produce answers1. Empirical Evidence is:An observation or measurement that contributes to either verifying or falsifying a claim about what’s true;Independent of the observer (i.e. objective). The evidence will be the same no matter who observes it;2. Empirical Testing is:Any situation or procedure that creates empirical evidence which allows a claim on truth to be verified or falsifiedEmpirical tests must be replicable and verifiable.- The “Golden Assumption” of the science game:1. If an object of study exists in nature, it is Knowable:i.e. its possible to fully DESCRIBE and EXPLAIN even highlycomplex things, like brains, beliefs, time, and love2. All phenomena (including psychological) are Lawful:If we could perfectly control all of the input variables, we could perfectly PREDICT and CONTROL the outcome- The Cycle of Scientific Progress:- Theory testing: 1. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)We are conditioned by social norms to behave in certain ways2. Parental Investment Theory (Trivers, 1971)The sex that bares the greater cost/risk of pregnancy and child rearing will be biologically motivated to be choosier and more cautious- Multiple Levels of Analysis to explain human behavior:1. From the biological up to the socio-cultural2. Its not “Nature vs. Nurture” – its both- W.E.I.R.D samples1. Stands for: Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic2. WEIRD is not necessarily the norm 3. The top 4 countries for psychology citations are English speaking 5/20 lecture: Operationalizing measures- Psychological construct:1. Any explanatory variable that is not directly observable or tangible“He ate the cookie because he was hungry”2. To empirically study constructs, we need to operationalize them:Turning abstract constructs into specific, measurable instances that are both reliable and valid. It needs to be valid & it needs to reliable.- Multiple ways to operationalize psychological constructs: 1. Self-Report Measures Verbal responses to Interview or Questionnaire itemsEx: Subjective Well Being ScalePros: Easy & low costLarge anonymous samples can be quickly studiedMay be the most appropriate format (i.e. the study of attitudes, mood)Cons: Open to fabrication (intentional or not)Memory distortionsLazy or inattentive respondingMay not be useful for non-conscious or non-declarative constructs 2. Self-Report bias Social desirability Bias (aka Demand Characteristics)a. Giving socially acceptable responses in an actively-deceptive wayb. Solution? Anonymity, and ask for honesty. Order & Priming Effects c. Early responses can bias later ones.d. Ex: Asking about racism then showing white vs. black candidates for hire.e. Perhaps you may need to randomize order of questions Response set (or Mental Set)f. When similar responses to a few initial questions establish a pattern of responding g. Ex: “Oh I’m a 6, I’ll just do all 6’s. No need to pay close attention.”3. Observational Measures (aka Behavioral Measures) Recording observable behaviors.Ex: Measuring Happiness via # of smilesEx. Counting the number of problems attempted to measure motivationPros: More shielded from respondent bias, Can be recorded w/ less interference, less obvious (e.g. chair distance)Sometimes most appropriate operationalization (e.g. helping)Cons: Can be more complicated to collect, Maybe experimenters “see what they want to see”, interpretation issuesEthics? (ex. Math cheating study)4. Physiological Measures Recording biological data believed to be associated with a constructEx: Dopamine & Endorphin levels in the brain to measure happinessEx: Blood flow to the “reward center” (nucleus accumbens) in an fMRIPros: Hard to consciously control or fake, Can be very precise, Perceived as more “credible.”Cons: Can be expensive & time consuming to collect,May require technical expertise w/ machinery/procedures, May be most sensitive to uncontrollable sources of error. Ethics? (e.g. reaction formation study ; fMRI lie-detection)- Validity vs. Reliability1. It needs to be Valid:o The operationalized measure is actually capturing what it claims tobe measuring as best and completely as possible.o Ex: A 34-inch “yard stick” is an invalid measure of a yard (36 inches).o Questionable Validity: Traditional Lie Detectors & Infant Lookingo http://fixingpsychology.blogspot.com/2012/05/what-is-wrong-with-infant-looking.html2. It needs to be Reliable:o The measure produces consistent scores when constructs are stableo And it captures changes when constructs changeo In other words, fluctuations in scores are not a mistake o Ex: A 34 inch yard stick is reliable (i.e. consistent), but not valido Ex: A EEG machine may be valid, but if glitchy, its not reliable5/22 lecture: Survey creation & sampling- Population vs. Sample vs. Representative sample 1. Population: the entire set of people of interest who share some criteria2. Sample: A subset of the population of interest, we’re typically interested in generalizing from a sample to the population3. Representative sample: 2500 people- Probability sampling:Ensures that every individual in a population has an equal chance of being sampledExamples: random digit dialing, database sampling, and zip-code sampling1. Simple Random Sampling: Every person has a specified probability of being included. Example: choosing 25 employee names out of a hat for a company of 250.2. Stratified Random Sampling: Final sample reflects the proportions of subgroups represented in the population. EX: If FSU is X% Christian, Y% Jewish, Z% Muslim, W% atheist, out final sample of 100 students should reflect those same percentages. - Non-Probability Sampling & Issues of Generalizability1. Convenience Sampling: using whatever sample is accessible2. Not appropriate when trying to generalize broadly or to make frequency claims- Wording Survey Items: Do’s & Don’ts1. DO use:Clarity: the meaning of all questions must be clear and unambiguous to all respondentsCore Vocabulary: Words and phrases used in casual
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