Study Guide for FINAL ExamEXAM 1 CONTENTLectures 3/31 – 4/2 and Chapter 1 Biological psychology：also called behavioral neuroscience, brain and behavior, and physiological psychology. The study of the biological bases of psychological processes and behavior  Three Persistent issues in biopsychology1) Mind vs. BrainA. Original ideas:a. The original Mind-Body question: “Are the mind and body distinct, separate entities?” (original answer: of course)b. René Descartes’ explanation: the pineal body is the meeting point between the immaterial souland the material brain (dualism)c. Descartes had other ideas that were much closer to correct (although still quiet wrong in details- nervous activity “flows” through nerves to and from the brainB. Today’s mind-body question:a. How does the brain produce the mind?b. First step: what do we mean by the “mind” (conscious thoughts? Memories?)2) Localization of function (the concept that different brain regions specialize in specific behaviors)a. Phrenology (original and wrong): the belief that bumps on the skull reflect enlargements of brain regions responsible for certain behavioral facultiesb. Localization: maybe not?Lesion studies show that brain functions are NOT localized (advocate a holistic view of the brain)c. Localization: probably (at least for some things) Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s area3) Neural communicationa. How do neurons communicate and create our conscious experience? (we need to see neurons before we figured this out)b. Staining techniques: Golgi stain (good for shapes, stains only few neurons), Nissl stain (good for counting-stains nucleus of all neurons)c. Cajal’s “Neural Doctrine”i. Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system ii. Neurons are discrete bodiesiii. Neurons contain dendrites, cell bodies, and axonsiv. Neural impulses are directional Neuroplasticity: the ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environmento we know that experiences can alter the size of brain regions and interconnections between neurons, and cellular changes have been discovered that could be mechanisms for storing memories o we also know that certain experiences and physiological states can modify the rate at which new neurons are born in the adult brain (adult neurogenesis)Lectures 4/2 – 4/8 and Chapter 2: Limits of specific neuroimaging techniques o fMRI/PET (used for spatial resolution) does not really track neural activity (only blood flow) very poor temporal resolution (a “picture” of the brain every 2 secs) it is only correlational (no casual inference)o EEG/MEG (used for temporal resolution) Poor spatial resolution (and only surface activity not 3D) Signals are VERY weak No causal inference Limits of neuroimaging in generalo Trade-offs between spatial and temporal resolutiono Data are difficult to interpret-even to scientistso Correlational  Causal inference: Does this (in brain) cause that (behavior)?o Three methods: patient studies, TMS, animal studies1. Patient studies: (lesion studies)- the brain is a system of specialized regions (different regions=different contributions to behavior)- brain damage impairs specific behaviors (what patients can and cannot do after brain damage gives us clues about the architecture of the mind)-Phinea Gage- limits of patient studies:o brain damage does not occur precisely where scientists would be interestedo long term consequences affect behavior (recovery, rehabilitation, neuroplasticity)o psychological factors intervene2. TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation): a way to create reversible, “virtual” lesions- Creates “virtual” patients in lab (interfering with the brain’s electrical signal)- Safe if done properly- Pros and cons of neuropsychology/TMSo Pros: 1) pinpoint a function to a particular region 2) provide “hard” evidence (non-correlational)o Cons:1) difficult to localize damage precisely 2) binary manipulation (working/non-working) 3) locality assumption (no network effects) Animal studies: pros and cons o Optogenetics: a new technique to manipulate the activity of specific subsets of neurons Spatial and temporal resolution are both GREAT Literally alter the brain activity and see how behaviors change (causal inference) Pros and cons:- Animals studies allow far more experimental control: results are more straightforward to interpret (can answer causal questions, can manipulate and measure highly specific brain regions)- Major limitation: subjects aren’t humans Neurons: or nerve cells, are basic unit of the nervous system, each composed of receptive extensions called dendrites, an integrating cell body, a conducting axon, and a transmitting axon terminalo Types: multipolar, bipolar, unipolar; sensory neuron, motoneuron, interneuron Glial cells: also called glia, provides brain cells structural, nutritional, and other types of supporto Types: Astrocyte, Oligodendrocyte, Schwann cells, Microglia, NG2 cells Oligodendrocytes & Schwann cells: provide insulation of axons in CNS Astrocyte: nourish neurons Microglia: cleaning around neurons (engulf and destroy debris) Synaptic cleft / Synapseo Synapse: the cellular location at which information is transmitted from a neuron to another cell o Synaptic cleft: the space between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons at a synapse Neurotransmitter: also called synaptic transmitter, chemical transmitter, or simply transmitter. The chemical released from the presynaptic axon terminal that serves as the basis of communication between neurons Receptors: or neurotransmitter receptors, proteins that capture and react to molecules of a neurotransmitter or hormoneo These receptors then alter the level of excitation of the postsynaptic neuron and making the neuron more or less likely to release NT from its own axon terminalso *Neural plasticity: the configuration of synapses on a neuron’s dendrites and cell body is constantly changing-in response to new patterns of synaptic activity and the formation of new neural circuits, synapses come and go, and dendrites change their shape Myelin: the fatty insulation around an axon, formed by glial cells (Schwann cells and Oligodendrocytes). This sheath improves the speed at which nerve impulses are conductedo nodes of Ranvier: small patches of axonal membrane without insulation  Basal ganglia: a group