What are some uses of these fermentation processes in industry and in the human body? Industry:- Lactic Acid Fermentation [Dairy Industry]- uses lactic acid fermentation by bacteria to make cheese and yogurt; other types of microbial fermentation turn soybeans into soy sauce and cabbage inter sauerkraut- Alcohol Fermentation- yeasts and certain bacteria recycle their NADH back to NAD+ while converting pyruvate to CO2 and ethanol; the CO2 provides the bubbles in champagne and beer & bubbles of COa generated by bakers yeast causes bread dough to riseo Ethanol is toxic to the organisms that produce it; yeasts release their alcohol wastes to their surroundings where it usually diffuses away; when yeasts are confined in a wine vat, they die when the alcohol concentration reaches 14%Human Body: Lactic Acid Fermentation- NADH is oxidized to NAD+ as pyruvate is reduced to lactate (the ionized form of lactic acid)- Muscle cells can switch to lactic acid fermentation when the need for ATP outpaces the delivery of O2 via the bloodstream- The lactate is carried in the blood to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate and oxidized in the mitochondria od liver cellsDescribe the structure of a chloroplast; include the terms thylakoid, stroma, and inner and outer membranes. Correlate chloroplast structure with the stages of photosynthesis. Structure:- Enclosed by an inner and outer membrane, separated by an intermembrane space- The compartment inside the inner membrane holds a thick fluid called stroma, which contains chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as well as enzymes- A network of interconnected sacs are called thylakoid and are found inside the chloroplast; stacks of these thylakoids are called grana (the chloroplasts solar power packs)- The compartment inside of the thylakoid sac is called the thylakoidspaceStages of Photosynthesis:- Thylakoid Membrane-Light Reactions-energy is captured from sunlight, water is split into H+ ions, electrons and O2, the O2 diffuses outof the chloroplasts as a byproduct; the light energy is converted to chemical energy, which is temporarily stored in ATP and NADPH- Stroma-Dark Reactions [Calvin Cycle]-the chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH powers the formation of Sugars, using CO2; this cyclealso produces ADP and NADP+ to flow back into the light reactions to become energizedDescribe the overall concept of the light reactions of photosynthesis. Where are the products of the light reactions? What is the starting material? What is the source of energy? Concept:- Uses solar energy and water to form ATP and NADPH.- Occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplastProducts:- ATP- NADPH- O2Starting Material:- H2O- SunlightSource of Energy:- SunlightDescribe the structure, function and metabolic pathways that occur in the mitochondrion; include outer membrane, inner membrane, and matrix Structure:- Smooth outer membrane, surrounding a folded inner membrane- The folds are called cristae (increase surface area)- Intermembrane space (compartment between membranes)- Matrix (interior of the mitochondria)Function : - ATP production- Cellular respirationMitochondrion Matrix:- Cellular respiration occurs here: pyruvate (a product of glycolysis in the cytosol) is converted to CO2 and H2O- Site of the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle), whereby the electron transport Chain is used to set up a proton gradient between the inner and outer membrane of the mitochondria (known as the intermembrane space). The protons accumulate in the intermembrane space to a point that the concentration gradient causes the protons to flow back into the matrix. Inner Membrane:- It is studded with proteins necessary for the Electron Transport Chain- Upon reentering the matric, the H+ go through the ATP synthase, which in turn powers the synthase to phosphorylate ADP to ATP- This membrane is folded (cristae) to allow for a greater surface area to utilize for the Electron Transport ChainOuter Membrane:- Consists of a phospholipid bilayer laced throughout with integral proteins- It is permeable and allows for water, ions, and some proteins to flow freely into the intermembrane