Indian Policy Since 1934 & the Development of Reservation Governments 1""March&24,&2014 Indian"Reorganization"Act"of"1934"in"Context • US"was"suffering"through"he"Great"Depression o Mistakenly"believed"that"the"market"had"failed"on"a"massive"level"o Government"was"seen"as"the"solution,"and"government"economic"programs"grew"dramatically"during"this"period"o Great"Depression:"demand"for"more"Indian"lands"by"nonIIndians"declined"• The"perceived"solution"to"the"Indian"problems"were"government"rather"than"market"solutions"o Goal"of"many"reformers"was"the"creation"of"tribal"governments"that"would"allow"the"Indian"communities"to"rapidly"move"toward"selfIdetermination"• Very"few"reservations"had"tribal"governments"Changing"Objectives"of"Indian"Policy"• Indian"Reorganization"Act"suggests"a"very"different"focus"for"Indian"policy"o Dawes"Act"was"allegedly"supposed"to"make"individual"Indians"selfIsufficient"by"privatizing"land,"so"individual"Indians"could"become"acculturated"into"the"predominantly-European-based-culture-of-the-US"as"a"whole" Dawes"Act’s"intention:"all"land"would"eventually"become"fee"simple"o By"1934"the"focus"had"shifted"from"the"individual"to"the"group"(tribe)"and"reformers"paid"very"little"attention"to"the"wishes"or"needs"of"individual"Indians,"or"subgroups"within"tribes" Focus:"individual""tribe"Reformer’s"Vision"• Vision"of"tribal"governance"many"have"been"consistent"with"some"tribal"cultures"and"organizations"but"not"with"most"tribes"o Intellectuals"of"the"period"saw"socialism"or"communism"as"the"wave"of"the"future,"so"they"looked"for"a"model"government"that"fit"this"view"o Myth"of"Indian"Communism"dominated,"even"through"strong"tribal"government"was"completely"foreign"to"most"Indians"“BootleggerIBaptist”"Problem"• Indian"policy"is"not"just"dominated"by"those"who"think"they"are"doing"good"for"Indians"o Individuals"within"the"BIA"saw"that"the"changes"advocated"by"the"reformers"would"also"benefit"them"(BIA"="bootleggers)" If"the"allotment"process"had"continued,"the"BIA"might"well"have"worked"itself"out"of"a"job"(BIA"had"grown"significantly"during"the"early"allotted"period,"from"1887"through"1910,"but"the"bureau"actually"shrank"in"size"between"1911"and"1933,"falling"from"6000"to"5000"employees)"2" Already"explained:"the"1934"act"ended"allotment"and"made"the"BIA"the"trustee"in"perpetuity"for"all"remaining"Indian"lands"BIA"Interests"• In"addition,"BIA"was"supposed"to"help"the"Indian""tribes"become"selfIdeterminant"through"the"creation"of"constitutional"tribal"governments"o By"the"end"of"1934"it"had"12,000"employees,"up"from"5,000"in"1933""BIA"grew" Expected"this"expansion"to"be"short7term-because"expected"more"selfIdetermination"once"tribal"governments"were"set"up"o Rather"than"a"rapid"movement"toward"such"selfIdetermination,"reservations"ended"up"with"even"more"bureaucratic"oversight"and"greater"reliance"on"the"federal"government"(mainly"the"BIA)"BIA"Policy"Advocacy"• The"primary"advocate"for"the"reforms"that"were"implemented"by"the"1934"Act"was"John"Collier,"the"Commissioner"of"Indian"Affairs"(head"of"BIA)"o Responsible"for"structure"of"the"bill"o Supported"by"various"nonIIndian"reform"groups"such"as"the"American"Indians"Defense"Association"and"the"American"Civil"Liberties"Union"o The"Act"was"widely"opposed"by"Indians"themselves" Opposition"particularly"strong"on"reservations"where"allotment"had"transferred"land"into"private"hands" Indians"who"had"held"onto"their"fee"simple"property"on"the"reservation"were"afraid"that"their"land"would"become"subject"to"tribal"government"regulation/control" Indians"who"had"been"allotted"non"fee"simple"land"feared"that"it"would"be"frozen"as"trust"lands" Opposition"also"strong"among"Indians"who"retained"culture"and"traditions" Recognized"that"tribal"governments"were"usually"ineffective"Tribal"Governments"• Indian"Reorganization"Act"was"signed"into"law"on"June"18,"1934"o Ended"allotment,"authorized"spending"$250,000"annually"to"formalize"governments"on"reservations"and"another"$2M"annually"to"acquire"land"and"expand"reservation"holdings" Funds"in"Act"intended"to"assist"Indians"develop"these"public"institutions" Tried"to"induce"tribes"to"support"the"Act" Indians"could"compete"for"money"to"purchase"land"and"create"more"tribal"trust"lands"o Tribes"were"to"adopt"constitutions"and"create"byIlaws"to"establish"how"the"tribe"would"conduct"its"economic"activities""3"Application"of"the"Act"• The"BIA"wanted"a"mandate"that"constitutions"and"byIlaws"be"created,"but"Congress"did"not"follow"through"o BIA"intended"that"Indians"voluntarily"created"their"constitutions"o Majority"of"the"adult"Indians"on"a"reservation"had"to"vote"in"favor"of"applying"the"Act"before"it"could"be"applied" Dept."of"Interior’s"solicitors"office"had"to"a p prove"of"the"voting"arrangements:"ruled"that"all"eligible"votes"woul d" be"counted"whether"cast"or"not,"and"tha t "all"votes"not"cast"would"be"counted"as"favoring"application"of"the"Act" Example:"on"the"Hope"reservation,"more"than"85%"of"the"eligible"voters"opposed"reorganization"and"decided"to"boycott"the"referendum"vote:"all"of"these"nonIvotes"were"counted"as"affirmative"votes"" BackIfired"BIA"Manipulation"of"Votes"• On"some"reservations,"the"BIA"promised"grants"and"loans"for"favorable"votes"• BIA"bargained"with"reservations,"promising"them"money"if"they"favored"the"Act"• On"the"Pine"Ridge"Reservation"a"number"of"dead"people"“somehow"managed”"to"vote"for"reorganization,"and"even"after"this"was" p roven,"the"vote"was"allowed"to"stand"a n d"reorganization"was"allowed"to"proceed"• Despite"BIA"efforts,"77"tribes"voted"against"the"Act"while"181"approved"its"application"o Apparently"the"vote"count"was"problematic"on"virtually"every"reservation"where"referendums"passed"One"SizeIFits"All"Governments"• BIA"used"the"Reorganization"Act"to"create"Indian"governments"that"fit"a"model"of"communal"ownership"and"centralized"decision"making"o Democratic"socialism"• US"Constitution"was"a"model"for"many"aspects"of"these"governments"o Outcome"somewhat"different"because"many"of"these"tribal"governments"actually"controlled"the"most"important"economic"resources"on"reservations"(i.e."tribal"lands),"with"decisions"subject"to"BIA"approval""economic"decisions"were"centralized"