cultureall that human beings learn to do, to use, to produce, to know, and to believe as they grow to maturity and live out their lives in the social groups to which they belongculture shockthe difficulty people have adjusting to a new culture that differs markedly from their ownethocentrisma practice where people often make judgments about other cultures according to the customs and values of their owncultural relativismthe recognition that social groups and cultures must be studied and understood on their own terms before valid comparisons can be madenonmaterial culturethe totality of knowledge, beliefs, values, and rules for appropriate behaviornormsthe rules of behavior that are agreed upon and shared within a culture and that prescribe limits of acceptable behaviormoresstrongly held norms that usually have a moral connotation and are based on the central values of the culturefolkwaysnorms that permit a wide degree of individual interpretation as long as certain limits are not oversteppedideal normsexpectations of what people should do under perfect conditionsreal normsnorms that are expressed with qualifications and allowances for differences in individual behaviorselectivitya process by which some aspects of the world are viewed as important while others are virtually neglectedSapir-Whorf hypothesisargues that the language a person uses determines his or her perception of realitysymbolanything that represents something else and carries a particular meaning recognized by members of a cultureadaptationthe process by which human beings adjust to changes in their environmentinnovationsany new practice or tool that becomes widely accepted in a societydiffusionthe movement of cultural traits from one culture to anotherreformulationin which a trait is modified in some way so that it fits better in its new contextcultural lagthe phenomenon through which new patterns of behavior may emerge, even though they conflict with traditional valuessubculturethe distinctive lifestyles, values, norms, and beliefs of certain segments of the population within a societycultural universalscertain models or patterns that have developed in all cultures to resolve common problemsincestsexual relations between family memberstaboothe prohibition of a specific actionrites of passagestandardized rituals marking major life transitionsideologiesstrongly held beliefs and valuescaste systema rigid form of stratification, based on ascribed characteristics such as skin color or family identity, that determines a person's prestige, occupation, residence, and social relationshipsestate systema closed system of stratification in which a person's social position isdefined by law, and membership is determined primarily by inheritancemodernization theoryassumes that the economic differences among countries are due to technological and cultural differencesdependency theoryproposes that the economic positions of rich and poor nations are linked and cannot be understood in isolation from each otherHIVthe virus that causes AIDSacute respiratory illnessone of the most prevalent child killers in developing nationsreligiona system of beliefs, practices, and philosophical values shared by a group ofpeople; it defines the sacred, helps explain life, and offers salvation from the problems of human existenceprofaneall empirically observable things (i.e. things that are knowable through common, every day experiences)sacredthings that are awe inspiring and knowable only through extraordinary experiencesritualspatterns of behavior or practices that are related to the sacredprayera means for individuals to address or communicate with supernatural beings or forcesmagican active attempt to coerce spirits or to control supernatural forcessupernaturalismpostulates the existence of non-personalized supernatural forces that can, and often do, influence human eventsmanaa diffuse, non-personalized force that acts through anything that lives or movesreligious tabooa sacred prohibition against touching, mentioning, or looking at certain objects, acts, or peopleanimismthe belief in inanimate, personalized spirits or ghosts of ancestors that take an interest in, and actively work to influence, human affairstheismthe belief in divine beings--gods and goddesses--who shape human affairspolytheismthe belief in a number of godsmonotheismthe belief in one godabstract idealsfocus on the achievement of personal awareness and a higher state of consciousness through correct ways of thinking and behaving rather than by manipulating spirits or worshipping godstoteman ordinary object such as a plant or animal that has become a sacred symbol to and of a particular group or clan who not only revere the totem but also identify with itrevitalization movementpowerful religious movements that stress a return to the traditional religious values of the pastalienationthe process by which people lose control over the social institutions they themselves inventeduniversal churchincludes all the members of a society within one united moral communityecclesiaa church that shares the same ethical system as the secular society and has come to represent and promote the interest of the society at largedenominationtends to limit its membership to a particular class, ethnic group. or religiousgroup or, at least, to have its leadership positions dominated by members of such a groupsecta small group that adheres strictly to religious doctrine and often claims that they are the authentic version of the faith from which they splitmillenarian movementstypically prophesy the end of the world, the destruction of all evil people and their works, and by the saving of the justsecularizedless influenced by religionecumenismthe trend among many religious communities to draw together and project a sense of unity and common directioncultural transmissionin which major portions of society's knowledge are passed from one generation to the nexthidden curriculumthe social attitudes and values taught in school that prepare children to accept the requirements of adult life and to fit into the social, political, and economic statuses the society providesde jure segregationlaws prohibiting one racial group from attending school with anotherde facto segregationsegregation resulting from residential patternspreindustrial citiescities established prior to the Industrial Revolutionindustrial citiescities established during or after the Industrial Revolution and are