affective behavior- relating to feeling and emotion (cognitive behavior- related to thinking)allostatic regulation- ("different conditions") system that can alter its range of function as new physiologicalconditions demand having an altered setpoint varies under changed conditions (ex. a fever increases the temperature of the body)attractor- a region of a phase space diagram where stable behavior occurs; or, a stable pattern of activity in achaotic system; - example: fibrillation vs normal heart function - a point that appears to "pull" the behavior of a pendulum inward to 0 position/0 movement- the pendulum "runs down" gradually swinging less and slowing down- regulated pendulums involve energy input to keep it in motion (kicks pendulum onto larger loop in phase diagram==> loss of momentum brings path inward until next input of energy- this is known as a limit cycle attractor ("doughnut")- water tends to run down conical valley to point attractor at bottom, but if a dam built at bottom, therewould then be 2 attractors of which the starting point determines outcomeautocrine- a type of signal hormone that is secreted by a cell that acts on the cell itself ("self"-regulated)autonomic neurons- control smooth/cardiac muscle as well as exocrine and some endocrine glands- antagonistic control by parasympathetic- (day to day basal rate) and sympathetic branches- (fight-or-flight response)axon- extensions that generally reach very long distances from the cell body- usually single w/few branches along length forming collaterals- in PNS bundle into fibers known as nerves- length of axon and its branches gives indication to its destinations for processed informationaxon hillock- part of neuron where axon originatesaxon terminals- terminal branches at enlarged ends that resemble "buttons"/"beads"bipolar- a type of neuron structure that has 2 extensions (1 dendrite and 1 neuron)- primitive structure that are the first neurons in development and are rare in adults (2 poles)butterfly effect- Edward Lorenz proposed sensitive dependence on initial conditions as another property of nonlinear systems - slight change in starting conditions leads to a big effect in system performance over time- especially true in systems that have regulatory loopscentralization- more complex regulation by the nervous system common in vertebrate nervous system- advantageouscell body- enlarged region surrounding the nucleus of each neuron w/variable number of extensions- size varies from large neurons =>connect distant structures to small =>local connections- neurons are highly active cell with a large, pale nucleus ("reading" DNA) and highly developed nucleolus- Have RER for protein synthesis, extensive Golgi for protein packaging and many mitochondriao lots of ATP made to keep neuron active- often called somacell-cell-communication- how cells communicate derp- gap junctions- allow direct transfer of signals between adjacent cells via connexin protein channel- contact-dependent signals- when surface molecules on one cell membrane bind to surface molecules on another- local communication- chemicals that diffuse through ECF membrane- long distance communication- combination of nerve signals and chemical signals in bloodcentral nervous system (CNS)- brain and spinal cordchemical signals- molecules secreted into the ECF (target cells- receive chemical/electrical signals)circadian rhythm- daily biological rhythm for many processes (ex. body temp low-morning, high-night)Claude Bernard- (1865) proposed the idea of the regulation of an "internal environment" within a narrowly fixed rangeclosed loop- a response loop with a regulatory feedback loop that provides continuous regulation (SEE RESPONSE LOOP)- sensor- (receptor) monitors the current conditions (often local, can be long range - ex. vision)o activated when variable moves out of desired range- comparator- (integrating center in which setpoint compared w/current state)- setpoint- the value around which regulation takes placeo acclimatization- adaptation of physiological processes w/ given set of conditionso acclimation- artificially induced acclimatization- effector- performs some action (motor structures=> movement and glands=>secretions)- response- result of change in the closed system- ex. with earlier stove example, same components except the sensor would be a thermostat which would send a feedback signal to the comparator if value leaves normal range of functioncybernetics- developed by Norbert Wiener (1948) and is the science of control and communications in the animal and the machine - this covers both regulation and information processing in regulatory systemscytokines- molecules that act as autocrine/paracrine signals in cell development and differentiation and act as long distance hormones in immune response (ex. erythropoietin synthesis of red blood cells)delay- inherent in feedback systems and depends on anatomy and processing time - (ex. even simple reflexes may take time if brain is involved)dendrites- extensions that generally reach short distances from the cell body- often multiple and highly branched (shape gives clue to type of neuron)- form dendritic spines to increase surface areaemergence- composed of simple functional elements that obey a rule of interaction and when large numbers of elements present, a new complex macrobehavior results- ex. billions of neurons (simple functional elements)===> complex thinking and feelingso nervous system highly complex w/wide variety of cell types/shapes/functions- develops from the behaviors of simple elements (bottom-up control)electrical signals- changes in membrane potentialendocrine control- regulation solely though endocrine system via hormones carried in blood - regulation releases chemical hormone into blood and often works at a distance from gland- have no afferent pathway as most endocrine cells function as sensor/integrating centerenteric nervous system- a group of neurons within the wall of the digestive tract that is capable of regulation autonomous of the central nervous system (controlled by autonomic nervous system)feedback loop- response "feeds back" to influence input portion of pathwayfeedforward- control uses of rate-of-change (velocity) information from special sensors and involves learning to have anticipatory responses(predictions) to changing conditions (ex. Pavlov's dogs & feeding)- distance= rate (velocity) x time: CNS uses velocity info to predict future position at certain timegain-