Chapter 15: Gender DevelopmentI. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender DevelopmentA. Biological Influences1) Evolutionary Approachesa) Evolutionary psychology theory(i) Aggressive tendencies of boys may be result of male-male competition throughout evolution- Availability of females, hunting(ii) Social tendencies of girls may result from maternal care throughout evolution- Close social circles on which to rely for extra support increased chance of offspring survival- Impulse control is beneficial for appropriate choice of mates(iii) Critiques- Cannot be tested- Emphasizes biological constraints on gender developmentb) Biosocial theory(i) Gender differences evolved from physical differences- Men generally faster, stronger – hunters- Women can nurse and bear children – familial supporters(ii) Change over time- Modern society eliminates need to be strong, enables reproductive control2) Neuroscience Approachesa) Hormones and brain functioning(i) Androgens- Steroid hormones more prevalent in males than in females- Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) Overproduced androgens during prenatal period in females Girls are more likely to behave as a “tomboy” Provides evidence for hormonal effect on behavior(ii) Organizational influences- Influence of sex-linked hormones on brain differentiation and organization(iii) Activational influences- Influence of fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels on contemporaneous activation of brain and behavioral responsesb) Brain structure and functioning(i) Corpus callosum- Larger and denser in women than in men- Both hemispheres display more cooperation in women than in menB. Cognitive and Motivational Influences1) Gender self-socializationa) Biases toward gender-appropriate behavior is strengthened by involvement with those gender-appropriate activities2) Cognitive Developmental Theorya) Gender identity(i) Established around 30 months of age(ii) Reference to oneself as a “boy” or “girl”, but do not understand the permanence of genderb) Gender stability(i) Occurs around 3 or 4 years of age(ii) Realization that gender is stable(iii) Still bases gender on physical appearances- A girl dressed as a boy would be a boyc) Gender constancy(i) Occurs around age 6(ii) Gender is consistent across various contexts(iii) Achieved at the same approximate time as theory of conservation3) Gender Schema Theorya) Mental categorization of everything associated with either genderb) Initiated and perpetuated by personal memory, adult reinforced gender stereotypes, and exposure to mediac) Arbitrary gender-typing causes children to like their own gender-labelled object more than the object labelled for the opposite genderd) Children remember more about things associated with their own gender than the opposite gender4) Social Identity Theorya) Ingroup bias(i) Bias towards one’s own affiliated groupb) Ingroup assimilation(i) Process by which individuals are socialized to conform to the norms of the groupc) Higher status groups are associated with higher group socialization pressure(i) In most cultures, boys have higher status than girls – boys are more likely to endorse gender stereotypes and display sexist attitudesd) Stereotype emulation(i) The more children identify with their gender, the more they view themselves as having stereotypic qualities5) Social Cognitive Theorya) Learning Mechanisms(i) Tuition- Direct teaching of gender socialization(ii) Enactive experience- Experiencing the reactions one’s behavior evokes in others(iii) Modeling- Observation of adults, peers, and society (i.e. media)(iv)Punishments and rewards- Offered by parents, peersb) Processes of gender-role observational learning(i) Attention- Behavior must be noticed(ii) Memory- Behavior must be remembered(iii) Production- Children practice observed behavior(iv)Motivation- Motivation to repeat a behavior depends on incentives or disincentives administered with regard to the behaviorc) Self-efficacy(i) Results from positive self-reactions for behavior(ii) Can develop gradually, through social modeling, and by social persuasion6) Self-Socialization: A Common Theme in Cognitive Theoriesa) Biased learning towards certain objects increases preference for those objects and decreases opportunities for learning about other objects7) Cultural Influencesa) Bioecological Model(i) Opportunity structure- Economic resources offered by macrostructure and people’s understandingof those resources- Vary based on gender, income, etc.(ii) Macrosystems (culture) and microsystems (immediate environment) both influence and gender opportunities, thereby affecting gender equality(iii) Social Role Theory- Gender differences stem from different roles in societyII. Milestones in Gender DevelopmentA. Infancy and Toddlerhood1) Infants can distinguish between males and females based on hairstyle and voice pitcha) Differentiation of voices develops by 6 monthsb) Differentiation of faces develops around 9 – 11 months2) Behavioral Differencesa) Activity level(i) Boys are more active than girlsb) Temperament: inhibitory control(i) Girls display more inhibitory control than boys3) Similarities Between Gendersa) Smiling(i) Frequency of smiling is the same in infancyb) Temperament(i) Many aspects of temperament are similar in boys and girls4) Gender socialization and parents’ differential treatmenta) Boys and girls tend to be treated the same in most respectsb) Boys are played with more roughlyB. Preschool Years1) Gender Learninga) Gender identity(i) Developed by 2 – 2.5 yearsb) Gender of others(i) Aware of others’ genders by 3 yearsc) Gender constancy(i) Developed by 5 - 6 yearsd) Gender-occupation association(i) Learned by age 5(ii) Underlying process is statistical learning2) Gender-Typed Behaviora) Demonstrations of preferences for gender-typed toys begins around age 2b) Boys display more aggressive behaviorc) Encouraged by parents(i) Over half of 4 y.o. boys said their father would think it was “bad” if they played with girls’ toys(ii) Wide variations between familiesd) Gender segregation(i) Children prefer to play with same-gender peers(ii) Increased gender segregation leads to more gender-typed behaviore) Gender socialization(i) Processes of parents’ gender socialization- Channeling (shaping) Parents create a gendered world for the child i.e. choice of toys, activities- Differential treatment Girls and boys treated differently- Direct instruction i.e. boys don’t cry- Modeling