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PSYC100H EXAM 3DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSSESGenotype = inherited genetic info carried by organismPhenotype = actual physical and behavioral characteristics of the organismEnvironmental Stimulation impacts the expression of genetic info during development (epigenetics)Developmental changes are NOT gradualJean PiagetCognitive Competence (Stage Theory)Children use mental schemasAssimilation = new info is interpreted using existing schemasAccommodation = the change of existing schemas by gaining experienceSensory-Motor Stage (age 0-2) = schemas consist of sensory impressions & motor actionsObject Permanence (age 9 mos) = children know objects do not vanish if out of viewA-Not-B Effect = when an object is moved out of view, the child continues to look in the old spotChildren age 2-5 no longer show the A-Not-B Effect and engage in pretend playPreoperational Thinking = children have difficulty imagining others’ vantage pointsPerception is egocentric (only about oneself)Ex) Pretend Play preschoolers cannot accomplish conservation of quantity of numberConcrete Operational Stage (7-11) = ability to appreciate conservationFormal Operational Thinking (11+) = comprehension of abstract & formal relationships/ patternsCriticism of Piaget’s TheoryHabituation Procedure allows more sensitive tests for infantsHabituation Procedure = infant will continue to look at stimulus if interesting, but look away when boredInfants may possess intuitive knowledge of the behavior of objects and numbersPiaget may have over-exaggerated egocentrism in preschoolersChanges in ability do not always imply concrete qualitative stage transitionsInformation Processing: many processes (memory span, rehearsal, chunking) change during development. These stages just reflect the total summation of a child’s cognitive functioningCRITICAL AND SENSITIVE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENTImprinting = early social experience may have a permanent effect on behaviorEx) ducklings follow the first moving object they seeAttachment = social bond that forms between an infant and its caregiversThought to be essential for normal human socializationHarlow examined attachment of monkeys using cloth v. wire surrogate mothersMonkeys ALWAYS preferred cloth mother contact comfortThese infants did not develop normal social behaviorsBowlby & Ainsworth studied attachment in humansChildren gain positive reinforcement from contactShow free floating anxiety when separated from caregiversSpitz Attachment Study = cribs covered, infants given little contact w/ caregiversChildren showed much poorer developmentChildren acquire values through reward, punishment, modeling, and imitationMoral Reasoning is acquired by cognitive learningStudied by Lawrence Kohlberg using ambiguous vignettes gender biasPreconventional stage = avoid punishment, seek rewardConventional stage = follow rules strictlyPostconventional stage = follow a social contract based on principleGENDER IDENTITY & ROLESGender identity = clear inner sense of being male or femaleGender role = variety of behaviors associated with each genderAre these roles biologically based??Reproductive system developmentEarly fetus has the potential for both male or female organs gonads are undifferentiatedWolffian duct develops into male system: Testosterone via developmentMullerian duct develops into female system: Mullerian regression hormone via atrophyPseudohermaphroditism = partial masculinization of a female fetus when exposed to male hormones early in developmentAdjustment is better is sex reassignment occurs earlyLearning is not the only factor in gender identityablatio penisLIFESPAN DEVELOPMENTErik Erikson determined 8 life stages, each associated with a life crisis0-1.5 years = trust v. mistrust1.5-3 years = autonomy v. shame / doubt3-6 years = initiative v. guilt6-puberty = competence v. inferiorityAdolescence = identity v. role confusionEarly adulthood = intimacy v. isolationMiddle age = productivity v. stagnationLater years = integrity v. despairSOCIAL PRESSURE AND BELIEFSExperiment of different line lengthsSubjects in a group could be pressured to say that unequal lines are the sameSolomon Asch found that 2/3 of subjects did NOT make independent line judgmentsSocially Shared Reality group size does not matter much beyond 3Leon Festinger conducted an experiment where subjects performed a boring taskSubjects paid $1 were more positive about the experience than subjects paid $20Proposed that we experience inconsistencies as unpleasant cognitive dissonanceWe may alter our attitudes to reduce dissonanceJustification of Effort = a goal is valued more highly if it is difficult to achieveCoercive Persuasion = Individuals may change prior beliefs to be consistent with their actual behaviorStockholm Effect = Prisoners identify with captors because they feel powerlessPost-decisional Dissonance = Individuals rationalize decisions after the fact, especially when in doubtStrange Case of Patty HearstKidnapped by Symbionese Liberation Army, voluntarily committed their crimesImpressions formed by adjective trait lists are often determined by a single central traitCauses primacy effects (increased remembrance)Fundamental Attribution ErrorWe attribute others’ behaviors to dispositionsWe attribute our own to the demands of the situationLooking-Glass Theory = self-concepts are attributions based on interactions with othersThe roles we play in society largely determine our self-perceptionsEmotion & Arousal TheoriesJames-Lange Theory of Emotion = we are afraid BECAUSE we run, not the oppositeSchacter & Singer Theory = emotions are cognitive evaluations of behaviors/ arousal triggered by social stimuliStimulusBehavior/ ArousalCognitive EvaluationReciprocity Principle = People feel obligated to reciprocate favorsBystander Effect: when to intervene???Most likely to intervene if no one else seems to be available or responsibleMost likely to intervene in unambiguous situationsForm of ambiguity = Pluralistic Ignorance = witnesses do not know if anyone else has already intervenedEx) Rape and murder of Kitty Genovese witnesses did nothingOBEDIENCE TO AUTHORITYStanley Milgram told subjects to give others painful electric shocks in a “learning” experimentMost subjects did this, even though they believed the “learner” was in painIn actuality, control panel was phony, so there were no real shocksWas this experiment ethical? Was there informed consent?Game Theory & The Prisoner’s DilemmaTwo


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UMD PSYC 100H - EXAM 3

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