Three Types of Research 1 Qualitative Research A research method that involves an in depth analysis of a single individual Goal Systematic bias free observation Form Interviews Behavioral Observations Advantages Idiographic Relating to or involving the study of individuals or individual events Information Gathered in a natural environment Disadvantages Cannot show causal relationships Highly subjective analysis and interpretation Low generalizability 2 Correlational Research Studies in which the degree of relationship between two variables or among multiple variables is assessed Correlation Coefficient r 1 0 Perfect negative association 1 0 Perfect positive association 0 no association Advantages Useful when experimentation is impractical or unethical Can show theory driven associations Justify experimentation Provide evident contrary to theory Disadvantages Causal relationships CANNOT be shown 3 Experimental Research A research method that involves conducting an experiment designed to show three things 1 Manipulation of X Independent variable 2 Causes a change in Y Dependent variable 3 X must precede Y Can take two forms 1 Group research random assignment to either a treatment group or control group 2 Single subject designs with manipulation Advantages causal relationships can be shown Disadvantages Can be impractical Can be unethical May not reflect natural behavior Allport s definition of personality is the moving and changing organization within the individual of both mind and body systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought unique to each individual Cattell s definition of personality anything that will predict behavior in a given situation Heritability coefficient refers to the proportion of variability in a trait across a population attributable to genetic differences among members of the population How it is inflated Homogeneous culture more diverse populations yield lower heritability coefficients Assuming genetic effects are additive rather than interactive Reliability the consistency of scores that are expected to be the same Example if you were to step on a bathroom scale to measure your weight every half hour during the course of an afternoon you would expect your weight to be the same because a reliable scale is consistent If the scale showed your weight changing from 150 pounds to 140 to 160 to 120 over the course of a single afternoon you would label the scale unreliable Error Variance variations of a measurement that are the result of irrelevant chance fluctuations The reliability of a personality test is determined in two ways 1 Internal Consistency Reliability the degree of consistency is measured by seeing whether subparts or equivalent parts of a test yield the same results 2 Test Retest Reliability the degree of consistency between the results of the same test taken on different occasions Validity the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to be measuring Types of validity Construct validity the extent to which a test truly measures a theoretical construct for example is the ACT really measuring personal charisma or is measuring friendliness or nurturance Construct Validity involves 1 Convergent Validation the extent to which an assessment is related to what it should be related to 2 Discriminant Validation the extent to which an assessment is not related to what it should not be related to Criterion related validity the extent to which an assessment predicts outcome criteria that were produces by different assessment methods for example the ACT predicts who is likely to be a leader just as it should Content validity the extent to which a test is measuring the domain it is supposed to be measuring for example a test might seem to be measuring creative ability but might in fact be measuring only artistic ability and ignoring musical ability writing ability etc A measure CAN BE reliable and invalid A measure CANNOT be valid and unreliable Trait a generalized neuropsychic structure or core tendency that underlies behavior across time and situations Type a theoretical approach to personality in which people are divided into discrete categories or classes as opposed to being placed along a continuum Typology a categorical scheme in which a person is a member of only one small set of groups Types of bias in personality test Acquiescence Response Set a bias in which people are more likely to agree than disagree with anything that is asked of them Response Set A bias responding to test items that is unrelated to the personality characteristic being measures Social Desirability Response Set a bias in which people are likely to want to present themselves in a favorable light or to try to please the experimenter or test administrator Ethnic bias a type of bias in which a test fails to take into account the relevant culture or subculture of the person being tested Gender bias Continuity vs Discontinuity Theory Continuity theory suggests that personality is closed and permits little change Emphasizes both quantitative changes and the accumulation of skills habits and discriminations Discontinuity theory suggests that personality is open experiences change and provides for extensive growth Emphasizes the organismic transformation and qualitative changes higher organizational levels stages of development Neurotransmitters and Behavioral Correlates Serotonin Linked to behavioral inhibition Low levels correlate with chronic pessimism irrational anger and fear of risk taking Hormones and Behavioral Correlates Noradrenalin Fight or flight response Testosterone linked to Control and inhibition aggressiveness and sexuality Psychosocial factors e g socialization and education moderate these correlates Cortical Depression Decreased immunity Empirical validity describes how closely scores on a test correspond correlate with behavior as measured in other contexts Can be measured through replication Gender differences in mating preferences Women Emphasize physical characteristics and seek older successful males greater likelihood of stable family environment Desire close monogamous relationships Characterized by selective mate selection Sexual infidelity not as upsetting as threat of mate falling in love Males Emphasize financial characteristics and seek younger attractive females greater likelihood of surviving birth and rigors of raising children Characterized by greater likelihood of infidelity Less selective regarding sexual partners Upset by
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