Psychology Final Study GuideChapter 1: IntroductionScientific Method- Stepso Identify problemo Conduct background researcho Formulate hypothesiso Test hypothesiso Analyze resultso Report results- Effectso Eliminates biaso Disproves assumptionso Shows importance of critical, objective inquiry to the study of the human mindImportant PeopleSocrates & Plato- DualistsAristotle- “The heart is the center of the mind and the soul”Descartes- Defended dualism- Problem with dualism: how can amind not made of material influence the brain?- Accepted idea of “flowing spirits”- Proposed the mind and brain interact at the pineal gland- smallest unpaired structure, “center of the soul”Locke- Tabula Rasa- blank slateWundt- “Father of Psychology”- Mind should be examined scientifically & objectively- Studied structure of human mind- First to attempt to incorporate objectivity and measurementFreud- Psychodynamic Theory: Believed human beings are motivated by primitve sexual drives, forbidden desires and traumatic childhood memories unavailable to the conscious mind- Unconscious expressed by dreams, slips of the tongue, symptoms of psychological disorders Watson- Behaviorism- Wanted to make scientific inquiry a primary focus in psychology- Developed behavioral approach- Work carried on by SkinnerSkinner- Supported Watson’s behaviorism- Helped it gain momentum through the 1900’sMaslow & Rogers- HumanisticDarwin- Evolutionary approach: explores how patterns of behavior may be beneficial to our survivalNature VS. Nurture Debate- Is knowledge learned (nurture) or innate (nature)?- Today: psychologists believe we become who we are through a unique combination of heredity and environmental factorso Question= amount of influence each hasChapter 2: Research MethodsValidity- Hitting the bullseye, “accurate”- The degree to which a measurement measures what it is intended to measureChapter 3: The Human BrainNeuron Firing- Neurons only fire when stimulated by a sourceo Other neuron or sensory receptoro Intensity of stimulus determines whether it will fire or not- Some cells instruct neuron to fire, others instruct it not to fire (inhibition)o Goes with majority- Every neuron has a specific threshold it needs to reach in order to fireo All or None Principle: If threshold is crossed, it will fire- Creates action potentialo Electrochemical ripple that works its way through the neuron and ends with the release of neurotransmitters that will stimulate the next neuron- When neuron is stimulated, potassium channels close and sodium channels openo Amount of positively charged sodium ions increases- Saltatory conduction occurs as the action potential jumps node to nodeo Nodes of Ranvier, along the axono Sodium ions in, potassium ions outPlasticity- Brain= constantly changing (within limits)- Important/helpful because life is unpredictable and our brains have evolved the ability to remodel themselves in response to our lives- Happens rapidly in early development and continues throughout life (more slowly)- 2 Step Processo Keeps connections that work besto Discards others that don’t work as well- Brain keeps only successful connections- Form new neurons in the hippocampus throughout lifeSugar Water and Immunosuppressant Study- Person unknowingly given cup of sugar water with immunosuppressant- Immunosuppressant causes sickness- After a while, sugar water alone makes the person sick- Sickness= conditioned response to unconditioned stimulusBandura’s Study- Kids observed violent and affectionate behavior by an adult to a doll- Kids copied the behavior they observed every timeChapter 4: Genetics and EvolutionDarwin- “On the Origin of Species” (1859)o Theory of Natural Selection- Frequency of characteristics or genes in a gene poolMating Patterns- Polygyny: One male with multiple females- Polyandry: One female with multiple males- Monogamy: One female, one male, both needed to raise offspring- Polygynandry: Multiple females with multiple males, live in communitiesGenes and Environment- Events and conditions in an individual’s environment activate the genes that create proteins which affect the individual’s traits and behaviors- External environment (outside) and chemical environment (inside)- Learning involves activation of genesUniversality of Facial Expressions- People across different cultures share the same facial expressions- 6: Surprise, fear, disgust, sadness, anger, happiness- In-group advantageChapter 5: Sensation and PerceptionSensation VS. Perception- Sensation: process through which we detect physical energy from the environment and code that energy as neural signals- Perception: the way a person sleets, organizes and interprets sensory informationOther Info- Stimulus for vision= light- Thalamus= relay station- Olfaction (smell)= only sense that does not send signals to the thalamusChapter 7: LearningClassical Conditioning- Two stimuli are associated, creates a reflex response- Discovered by Pavlov’s experiment- Componentso Unconditioned Stimulus: unlearned stimulus that elicits a reflex actiono Unconditioned Response: A reflex action elicited by an unconditioned stimuluso Conditioned Stimulus: An event that is repeatedly paired with a particular unconditioned stimuluso Conditioned Response: A learned reaction triggered bya conditioned stimuluso Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus which initially produces no specific responseother than focusing attentionOperant Conditioning- Type of learning in which organisms associate their actions with consequences- Reinforcement: an act that causes the response to be more likely to recur- Punishment: Penalty given in an attempt to decrease the occurrence of a certain behaviorChapter 10: Human Development IWalking- 11-15 months of ageLanguage TheoriesNativist Theory (Nature) Environmental Theory (Nurture)Language is innate, humans born with anatomy for advanced speakingLanguage is learned through social interaction- Psychologists agree language has an environmental basis- Disagree over how much input from parents and caregivers mattersOvergeneralization in Grammar* “I goed to school”Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentStage When TermSensorimotor Birth-2 years Object PermanencePreoperational 2-7 years EgocentrismConcrete Operations 7-11 years ConservationFormal Operations 11 years +Strange Situation Study- Mom and infant go to unfamiliar playroom with interesting toys & a stranger- Mom leaves infant with toys and stranger- Mom returns,